AIM RAC 3.5.3

Alcohol or Drugs — Passengers

602.04 (1) In this section, intoxicating liquor means a beverage that contains more than 2.5 per cent proof spirits.

(2) No person shall consume on board an aircraft an intoxicating liquor unless the intoxicating liquor

(a) has been served to that person by the operator of the aircraft; or

(b) where no flight attendant is on board, has been provided by the operator of the aircraft.

(3) No operator of an aircraft shall provide or serve any intoxicating liquor to a person on board the aircraft, where there are reasonable grounds to believe that the person’s faculties are impaired by alcohol or a drug to an extent that may present a hazard to the aircraft or to persons on board the aircraft.

(4) Subject to subsection (5), no operator of an aircraft shall allow a person to board the aircraft, where there are reasonable grounds to believe that the person’s faculties are impaired by alcohol or a drug to an extent that may present a hazard to the aircraft or to persons on board the aircraft.

(5) The operator of an aircraft may allow a person whose faculties are impaired by a drug to board an aircraft, where the drug was administered in accordance with a medical authorization and the person is under the supervision of an attendant.

Aircraft Icing

602.11 (1) In this section, critical surfaces means the wings, control surfaces, rotors, propellers, horizontal stabilizers, vertical stabilizers or any other stabilizing surfaces of an aircraft, as well as any other surfaces identified as critical surfaces in the aircraft flight manual.

(2) No person shall conduct or attempt to conduct a take-off in an aircraft that has frost, ice or snow adhering to any of its critical surfaces.

(3) Despite subsection (2), a person may conduct a take-off in an aircraft that has frost caused by cold-soaked fuel adhering to the underside or upper side, or both, of its wings if the take-off is conducted in accordance with the aircraft manufacturer’s instructions for take-off under those conditions.

(4) Where conditions are such that frost, ice or snow may reasonably be expected to adhere to the aircraft, no person shall conduct or attempt to conduct a take-off in an aircraft unless

(a) for aircraft that are not operated under Subpart 5 of Part VII,

(i) the aircraft has been inspected immediately prior to take-off to determine whether any frost, ice or snow is adhering to any of its critical surfaces, or

(ii) the operator has established an aircraft inspection program in accordance with the Operating and Flight Rules Standards, and the dispatch and take-off of the aircraft are in accordance with that program; and

(b) for aircraft that are operated under Subpart 5 of Part VII, the operator has established an aircraft inspection program in accordance with the Operating and Flight Rules Standards, and the dispatch and take-off of the aircraft are in accordance with that program.

(5) The inspection referred to in subparagraph (4)(a)(i) shall be performed by

(a) the pilot-in-command;

(b) a flight crew member of the aircraft who is designated by the pilot-in-command; or

(c) a person, other than a person referred to in paragraph (a) or (b), who

(i) is designated by the operator of the aircraft, and

(ii) has successfully completed training relating to ground and airborne icing operations under Subpart 4 or relating to aircraft surface contamination under Part VII.

(6) Where, before commencing take-off, a crew member of an aircraft observes that there is frost, ice or snow adhering to the wings of the aircraft, the crew member shall immediately report that observation to the pilot-in-command, and the pilot-in-command or a flight crew member designated by the pilot-in-command shall inspect the wings of the aircraft before take-off.

(7) Before an aircraft is de-iced or anti-iced, the pilot-in-command of the aircraft shall ensure that the crew members and passengers are informed of the decision to do so.

AIM AIR

Oxygen Requirements for Unpressurized Aircraft CAR 605.31

All crew members and 10 per cent of passengers and, in any case, no less than one passenger. Entire period of flight exceeding 30 minutes at cabin-pressure-altitudes above 10,000 feet ASL but not exceeding 13,000 feet ASL

All persons on board the aircraft:

(a) Entire period of flight at-cabin-pressure altitudes above 13,000 feet ASL

(b) For aircraft operated in an air transport service under the conditions referred to in paragraph (a), a period of flight of not less than one hour

Note:

Above 13,000 ft: you NEED supplemental oxygen
10,000 ft-13,000ft ASL: you can fly up to 30 mins without oxygen.
Below 10,000 ft ASL: you can fly without oxygen.

Since we are flying East, we fly at odd cruising altitudes. So we can fly 11,500 ft ASL for 30 mins maximum. Then descend down to 9,500 ft ASL for 1 hour 30 mins (or longer if needed)

AIM RAC 2.5.2

Reference: AIM RAC 2.6
ACA : FL270
NCA : FL230
SCA : FL180

PILOT/CONTROLLER ACTIONS AIM COM 9.9

In order to use a traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS) in the most effective and safest manner, the following pilot and controller actions are necessary:

(a)  Pilots should not manoeuvre their aircraft in response to traffic advisories (TAs) only.

(b)  In the event of a resolution advisory (RA) to alter the flight path, the alteration of the flight path should be limited to the minimum extent necessary to comply with the RA.

(c)  Pilots should notify, as soon as possible, the appropriate air traffic control (ATC) unit of the deviation and of when the deviation has ended.

(d)  When a pilot reports a manoeuvre induced by an RA, the controller should not attempt to modify the aircraft flight path until the pilot reports returning to the terms of the existing ATC instruction or clearance. Instead, the controller should provide traffic information as appropriate.

(e)  Pilots who deviate from an ATC instruction or clearance in response to an RA shall promptly return to the terms of that instruction or clearance when the conflict is resolved and advise ATC.

Life Rafts and Survival Equipment — Flights over Water

602.63 (1) No person shall operate over water a single-engined aeroplane, or a multi-engined aeroplane that is unable to maintain flight with any engine failed, at more than 100 nautical miles, or the distance that can be covered in 30 minutes of flight at the cruising speed filed in the flight plan or flight itinerary, whichever distance is the lesser, from a suitable emergency landing site unless life rafts are carried on board and are sufficient in total rated capacity to accommodate all of the persons on board.

(2) Subject to subsection (3), no person shall operate over water a multi-engined aeroplane that is able to maintain flight with any engine failed at more than 200 nautical miles, or the distance that can be covered in 60 minutes of flight at the cruising speed filed in the flight plan or flight itinerary, whichever distance is the lesser, from a suitable emergency landing site unless life rafts are carried on board and are sufficient in total rated capacity to accommodate all of the persons on board.

(3) A person may operate over water a transport category aircraft that is an aeroplane, at up to 400 nautical miles, or the distance that can be covered in 120 minutes of flight at the cruising speed filed in the flight plan or flight itinerary, whichever distance is the lesser, from a suitable emergency landing site without the life rafts referred to in subsection (2) being carried on board.

Unserviceable and Removed Equipment — Aircraft with a Minimum Equipment List

605.09 No person shall conduct a take-off in the aircraft with equipment that is not serviceable or that has been removed unless:

(a) the aircraft is operated in accordance with any conditions or limitations specified in the minimum equipment list; and

(b) a copy of the minimum equipment list is carried on board.

(2) Where the conditions or limitations specified in a minimum equipment list are in conflict with the requirements of an airworthiness directive, the airworthiness directive prevails.

Unserviceable and Removed Equipment — Aircraft without a Minimum Equipment List

605.10 (1) Where a minimum equipment list has not been approved in respect of the operator of an aircraft, no person shall conduct a take-off in the aircraft with equipment that is not serviceable or that has been removed, where that equipment is required by

(a) the standards of airworthiness that apply to day or night VFR or IFR flight, as applicable;

(b) any equipment list published by the aircraft manufacturer respecting aircraft equipment that is required for the intended flight;

(c) an air operator certificate, a special authorization issued under subsection 604.05(2), a special flight operations certificate or a flight training unit operating certificate;

(d) an airworthiness directive; or

(e) these Regulations.

(2) Where a minimum equipment list has not been approved in respect of the operator of an aircraft and the aircraft has equipment, other than the equipment required by subsection (1), that is not serviceable or that has been removed, no person shall conduct a take-off in the aircraft unless

(a) where the unserviceable equipment is not removed from the aircraft, it is isolated or secured so as not to constitute a hazard to any other aircraft system or to any person on board the aircraft;

(b) the appropriate placards are installed as required by the Aircraft Equipment and Maintenance Standards; and

(c) an entry recording the actions referred to in paragraphs (a) and (b) is made in the journey log, as applicable.

Flight Control Locks

605.29 No operator of an aircraft shall permit the use of a flight control lock in respect of the aircraft unless

(a) the flight control lock is incapable of becoming engaged when the aircraft is being operated; and

(b) an unmistakable warning is provided to the person operating the aircraft whenever the flight control lock is engaged.

VFR Flight in Class C Airspace

601.08 (1) Subject to subsection (2), no person operating a VFR aircraft shall enter Class C airspace unless the person receives a clearance to enter from the appropriate air traffic control unit before entering the airspace.

(2) The pilot-in-command of a VFR aircraft that is not equipped with radiocommunication equipment capable of two-way communication with the appropriate air traffic control unit may, during daylight in VMC, enter Class C airspace if the pilot-in-command receives authorization to enter from the appropriate air traffic control unit before entering the airspace.

(3) Class C airspace becomes Class E airspace when the appropriate air traffic control unit is not in operation.

AIM RAC 2.8.3

AIM RAC 2.8.2 Class B Airspace

3.5.2 Filing (Canadian Aviation Regulation [RAC] 602.75)

602.75

(1)  A flight plan shall be filed with an air traffic control unit, a flight service station or a community aerodrome radio station.

(2)  A flight itinerary shall be filed with a responsible person, an air traffic control unit, a flight service station or a community aerodrome radio station.

(3)  A flight plan or flight itinerary, shall be filed by

(a)  sending, delivering or otherwise communicating the flight plan or flight itinerary or the information contained therein; and

(b)  receiving acknowledgement that the flight plan or flight itinerary or the information contained therein has been received.

A “responsible person” means an individual who has agreed with the person who has filed a flight itinerary to ensure that, if the aircraft is overdue, the following are notified in the manner prescribed in this Section:

(a)  an ATC unit, an FSS or a CARS; or

(b)  an RCC.

NOTES:

The notification requires the flight itinerary information.

The expression flight service station used in the regulation includes a FIC. Flight plan information should be filed with a FIC, where complete briefing information is available. An IFR flight plan should be submitted to the flight planning section of an ACC.

Altitude Alerting System or Device

605.36 (1) Subject to subsection (2), no person shall conduct a take-off in a turbo-jet-powered aeroplane unless it is equipped with an altitude alerting system or device that conforms to the Aircraft Equipment and Maintenance Standards.

(2) Subsection (1) does not apply in respect of an aeroplane without a serviceable altitude alerting system or device if

(a) a minimum equipment list has been approved by the Minister in respect of the operator of the aeroplane pursuant to subsection 605.07(3) and the aeroplane is operated in accordance with the minimum equipment list; or

(b) a minimum equipment list has not been approved by the Minister in respect of the operator of the aeroplane and the aeroplane is operated

(i) from the place where the operator or pilot-in-command takes possession of the aeroplane to a place where the aeroplane can be equipped with such a system or device,

(ii) for the sole purpose of conducting a flight test, a competency check, a pilot proficiency check or flight crew member training, or

(iii) where the system or device becomes unserviceable after take-off, until it reaches an aerodrome at which the system or device can be repaired or replaced.

Flight Crew Members at Controls

705.29 (1) Subject to subsection (2), flight crew members who are on flight deck duty shall remain at their duty stations with their safety belts fastened and, where the aircraft is below 10,000 feet ASL, with their safety belts, including their shoulder harnesses, fastened.

(2) Flight crew members may leave their duty stations where

(a) their absence is necessary for the performance of duties in connection with the operation of the aircraft;

(b) their absence is in connection with physiological needs; or

(c) they are taking a rest period and are relieved by other flight crew members who meet the qualifications set out in the Commercial Air Service Standards.

AIM RAC 5.4

Take-off Minima

705.34 (1) Subject to subsection (2), no person shall conduct a take-off in an aircraft in IMC where weather conditions are at or above the take-off minima, but below the landing minima, for the runway to be used unless an alternate aerodrome is specified in the operational flight plan and that aerodrome is located

(a) in the case of a twin-engined aircraft, within the distance that can be flown in 60 minutes at the one-engine-inoperative cruise speed; or

(b) in the case of a three- or four-engined aircraft or where an air operator is authorized in its air operator certificate to conduct ETOPS with the type of aircraft operated, within the distance that can be flown in 120 minutes at the one-engine-inoperative cruise speed.

Personal Logs

401.08 (1) Every applicant for, and every holder of, a flight crew permit, licence or rating shall maintain a personal log in accordance with subsection (2) and with the personnel licensing standards for the documentation of

(a) experience acquired in respect of the issuance of the flight crew permit, licence or rating; and

(b) recency.

Reference: CARs 600.01

Large aircraft means an aeroplane having a maximum permissible take-off weight in excess of 5 700 kg (12,566 pounds)

The speed of an aircraft in which airflow over any part of the aircraft or structure under consideration first reaches (but does not exceed) Mach 1.0 is termed “critical Mach number” or “Mach Crit.” Thus, critical Mach number is the boundary between subsonic and transonic flight and is largely dependent on the wing and airfoil design. Critical Mach number is an important point in transonic flight. When shock waves form on the aircraft, airflow separation followed by buffet and aircraft control difficulties can occur. Shock waves, buffet, and airflow separation take place above critical Mach number. A jet aircraft typically is most efficient when cruising at or near its critical Mach number. At speeds 5–10 percent above the critical Mach number, compressibility effects begin. Drag begins to rise sharply.

Transport Canada - Risk Management

Risk is the chance or likelihood of injury or loss. Injury or loss is usually caused by the presence of a hazard that manifests itself when the conditions are right.

Risk management introduces the idea that the likelihood of an event happening can be reduced, or its negative consequences minimized. In civil aviation, the term is frequently used in the context of making decisions about how to handle situations that affect aviation safety.

Flight Data Recorder

605.33 (1) This section applies in respect of the following multi-engined turbine-powered aircraft:

(a) an aircraft in respect of which a type certificate has been issued authorizing the transport of 30 or fewer passengers, configured for 10 or more passenger seats and manufactured after October 11, 1991;

(b) an aeroplane in respect of which a type certificate has been issued authorizing the transport of 30 or fewer passengers and configured for 20 to 30 passenger seats;

(c) an aircraft in respect of which a type certificate has been issued authorizing the transport of more than 30 passengers; and

(d) an aircraft in respect of which a type certificate has been issued authorizing the transport of cargo only

Transport of Passengers in Single-engined Aircraft

703.22 (1) Subject to subsection (2), no air operator shall operate a single-engined aircraft with passengers on board in IFR flight or in night VFR flight.

(2) An air operator may operate a single-engined aircraft with passengers on board in IFR flight or in night VFR flight if the air operator

(a) is authorized to do so in its air operator certificate; and

(b) complies with the Commercial Air Service Standards.

Maximum Flight Time

700.27 (1) An air operator shall not assign flight time to a flight crew member, and a flight crew member shall not accept such an assignment, if the member’s total flight time will, as a result, exceed

(a) 112 hours in any 28 consecutive days;

(b) 300 hours in any 90 consecutive days;

(c) 1,000 hours in any 365 consecutive days; or

(d) in the case of a single-pilot operation, 8 hours in any 24 consecutive hours.

(2) For the purpose of subsection (1), a flight crew member’s flight time includes

(a) the flight time accumulated from other flight operations; and

(b) the total flight time of a flight with an augmented flight crew.

CAR 604.98 

(1) No private operator shall assign flight time to a flight crew member, and no flight crew member shall accept such an assignment, if the flight crew member’s total flight time in all flights conducted under this Subpart, Part IV or Part VII would, as a result, exceed

(a) 1,200 hours in a period of 12 consecutive months;

(b) 300 hours in a period of 90 consecutive days;

(c) 120 hours in a period of 30 consecutive days; or

(d) 8 hours in a period of 24 consecutive hours, if the assignment is for a single-pilot IFR flight.

Night and IMC Flights

702.42 (1) No person shall operate an aircraft at night unless the aircraft is equipped with

(a) at least one landing light; and

(b) if the aircraft is operated in icing conditions, a means of illumination or other means to detect the formation of ice.

(2) No person shall operate a multi-engined aircraft in IMC unless the aircraft is equipped with

(a) two generators or two alternators, each of which is driven by a separate engine or by a rotor drive train; and

(b) two independent sources of energy, at least one of which is not a battery, and each of which is able to drive all flight instruments requiring a source of energy and is installed so that the failure of one instrument or one source of energy will affect neither the energy supply to the remaining instruments nor the other source of energy.

Additional Equipment for Single-pilot Operations

702.43 No air operator shall operate an aircraft on a single-pilot operation in IFR flight unless the aircraft is equipped with

(a) an auto-pilot that is capable of operating the aircraft controls to maintain flight and manoeuvre the aircraft about the lateral and longitudinal axes;

(b) a headset with a boom microphone or equivalent and a transmit button on the control column; and

(c) a chart holder that is equipped with a light and that is placed in an easily readable position.

Minimum Altitudes and Distances

602.14

No person shall operate an aircraft

(a) over a built-up area or over an open-air assembly of persons unless the aircraft is operated at an altitude from which, in the event of an emergency necessitating an immediate landing, it would be possible to land the aircraft without creating a hazard to persons or property on the surface, and, in any case, at an altitude that is not lower than

(i) for aeroplanes, 1,000 feet above the highest obstacle located within a horizontal distance of 2,000 feet from the aeroplane,

(ii) for balloons, 500 feet above the highest obstacle located within a horizontal distance of 500 feet from the balloon, or

(iii) for an aircraft other than an aeroplane or a balloon, 1,000 feet above the highest obstacle located within a horizontal distance of 500 feet from the aircraft; and

(b) in circumstances other than those referred to in paragraph (a), at a distance less than 500 feet from any person, vessel, vehicle or structure.

AIM 8.8 UNLAWFUL INTERFERENCE

Canada, along with other nations, has adopted a special secondary surveillance radar (SSR) transponder code (7500) for use by pilots of aircraft subjected to an act of unlawful interference. Air traffic control (ATC) does not assign this code (7500) unless the pilot informs ATC of an act of unlawful interference in progress.

Selection of the code activates an alarm system and points out the aircraft on situation displays. If the controller doubts that an aircraft is the subject of an act of unlawful interference, the controller will say, “CONFIRM SQUAWK SEVEN FIVE ZERO ZERO”. If the pilot answers yes, the controller will alert the ATC system. If the pilot replies no, the controller will re-assign the proper code. If the pilot does not reply, the controller will take this as confirmation that the use of Code 7500 is intentional. If, after using Code 7500, an aircraft changes to Code 7700 or transmits a message including the phrase “TRANSPONDER SEVEN SEVEN ZERO ZERO”, this indicates that the aircraft is threatened by grave and imminent danger and requires immediate assistance.

Airborne Thunderstorm Detection and Weather Radar Equipment

703.65 No person shall operate an aircraft with passengers on board in IMC when current weather reports or forecasts indicate that thunderstorms may reasonably be expected along the route to be flown, unless the aircraft is equipped with thunderstorm detection equipment or weather radar equipment.

Shock waves occur whenever an object moves faster than the speed of sound and the object abruptly constricts the flow.

Shock waves are very small regions in a gas where the gas properties change by a large amount.

Across a shock wave, the air pressure increases almost instantaneously. The air temperature and density also increase across a shock wave, while the Mach number and speed of the flow decrease.

In order to calculate density altitude you need to know the pressure altitude and temperature.

Air density decrease with altitude.

Air density decreases with temperature.

High humidity affects engine performance due to the high level of water vapour in the air. Which means less air available for combustion.

Formula:
square root of the bank angle x stall speed in level flight  = stall speed in a turn
1.22 x 90 = 110 knots

Dihedral is the upward angle of the wings (or tail surface) from a horizontal axis. Dihedral makes aircraft more laterally stable, which means they are more stable when they roll left or right.

V_MC — Minimum Control Speed - the minimum flight speed at which it is possible to retain control of the aeroplane and maintain straight flight, through the use of maximum rudder defection and not more than 5 degrees of bank, following sudden failure of the critical engine.

NOTE 1:  V_MC for an aeroplane type is generally determined under the following conditions:

• all engines developing maximum rated power at the time of critical engine failure
• the aeroplane at a minimum practical weight and with a rearmost centre of gravity; and
• landing gear retracted, flaps in take-off position and the propeller of the critical engine windmilling.

NOTE 2:  At speeds below V_MC, the aeroplane will yaw and roll towards the failed engine.  It cannot be too strongly emphasized that control will be regained only by a reduction in power of the good engine or by increasing airspeed through a change in pitch attitude, or both.

High-speed buffet refers to the aerodynamic buffeting that occurs as a jet aircraft approaches its critical Mach. The resulting shock wave interferes with the wing's lifting ability by causing some airflow to separate from the wing.

Asymmetrical Thrust (Yaw)

Each engine’s descending propeller blade will produce greater thrust than the ascending blade when the airplane is operated under power and at positive angles of attack.

Even though both propellers produce the same thrust, the descending blade on the right engine has a longer moment arm (greater leverage) than the left engine’s descending blade. As a result, the left engine’s failure will result in the most asymmetrical thrust.

Accelerated Slipstream (Roll and Pitch)

Asymmetrical thrust (P-Factor) results in a longer moment arm to the center of thrust of the right engine than the left engine. Therefore, the center of lift is farther out on the right wing, resulting in a greater rolling tendency with a loss of the left engine. The left engine’s failure also results in a more significant downward pitching moment due to the greater loss of negative lift produced by the tail.

ACAS I Gives Traffic Advisories (TA's) but does not recommend any manoeuvres.

ACAS II Gives Traffic Advisories (TA's) and Resolution Advisories (RAs) in the vertical sense (direction).

ACAS III Gives TA's and RA's in vertical and/or horizontal directions.

Critical surface

Any stabilizing surface of an aircraft, including the wings, control surfaces, rotors, propellers, horizontal stabilizers, vertical stabilizers and, in the case of an aircraft that has rear-mounted engines, the upper surface of its fuselage.

AIM RAC 1.5.7

Maneuvering Area: That part of an aerodrome intended for taxiing, taking off and landing of aircraft, excluding the aprons.

Movement Area: Maneuvering Area + Aprons

Minimum Enroute Altitude (MEA) - the min MSL altitude that will clear obstructions and permit radio reception. It is the minimum altitude to be considered for IFR flight plans.

AIM RAC4.1.1

AIM COM 8.4

AIM AIR 2.12

AIM Air 2.12.2

SAE and ISO Type I Fluids: These fluids in the concentrated form contain a minimum of 80% glycol and are considered “unthickened” because of their relatively low viscosity. These fluids are used for de-icing or anti-icing, but provide very limited anti-icing protection.

AIM AIR 2.12.2

Human Factors For Aviation TP12863E

Note:

The Time of Useful Conciousness (TUC) or Effective Performance Time is the period of elapsed time from the interruption of normal air supply or exposure to an oxygen-poor environment until the time when the ability to function usefully is likely to be lost at which point an affected individual would no longer be capable of taking normal corrective or protective action.

Time of useful consciousness (TUC) is not the time to total unconsciousness.

The FAA handbook has slightly different numbers...

Reference: FAA Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge. Chapter 17: Aeromedical Factors.

AIM AIR 3.12 BLOOD DONATION

In a completely healthy individual, the fluid reduction caused by donating one unit of blood is replaced within several hours.

In some people, however, the loss of blood causes disturbances to the circulation that may last for several days. While the effects at ground level are minimal, flying during this period may entail a risk.

Generally, active pilots should not donate blood, but if blood has been donated they should wait at least 48 hr before flying.

AIM AIR 3.11 ANAESTHETICS

With spinal or general anaesthetics, or with serious operations, pilots should not fly until their doctor says it is safe to do so.

It is difficult to generalize about local anaesthetics used in minor operations or dental work.

Allergic reactions to these, if they occur, are early and by the time the anaesthetic has worn off the risk of side effects has passed.

However, after extensive procedures (such as the removal of several wisdom teeth), common sense suggests waiting at least 24 hr before flying.

AIM AIR 3.8 FATIGUE

From the Ground Up

A Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI) is an essential instrument used in aircraft for navigation. It assists pilots in maintaining situational awareness, especially during complex navigational procedures. Here's a detailed explanation of what an RMI does, how it functions, and what it indicates:

1. Purpose of the Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI)

The RMI combines information from a magnetic compass or a heading indicator with navigation data received from radio navigation aids, such as VOR (VHF Omnidirectional Range) and ADF (Automatic Direction Finder). Its primary function is to provide pilots with real-time, accurate direction information relative to the aircraft's heading.

2. Components of an RMI

An RMI typically consists of:

Compass Card: A rotating card that shows the aircraft’s current magnetic heading. The card rotates automatically to align with the magnetic heading indicated by the gyroscopic heading system.

Needles: The RMI typically has two needles. One needle usually points to a VOR station, and the other points to an NDB (Non-Directional Beacon). Each needle is color-coded for easy identification.

Indicator Window: Displays the aircraft's heading at the top of the compass card.

3. Functionality of an RMI

Magnetic Heading: The compass card is driven by the aircraft's heading reference system and rotates to always indicate the aircraft's current magnetic heading at the top of the display.

Navigation Aid Indication: The RMI shows the bearing to specific radio navigation stations:

VOR Bearing: One needle points directly to the VOR station. This provides the magnetic bearing from the aircraft to the station.

ADF Bearing: Another needle points towards an NDB, indicating the direction to the beacon relative to the aircraft’s current position.

4. Types of Needles and Their Indications

Single-Bar Needle: This needle typically points to a VOR station. It shows the magnetic direction to the station from the aircraft, allowing the pilot to understand the radial or bearing to fly towards or away from.

Double-Bar Needle: Often used for the ADF or NDB bearing, it shows where the NDB is located relative to the aircraft.

5. How Pilots Use an RMI

Pilots use the RMI for:

Determining Position: By observing the bearings to two different navigational aids, pilots can pinpoint their location on a chart.

Intercepting and Tracking Courses: The RMI helps in intercepting and maintaining a course to or from a VOR station or tracking towards an NDB.

Navigational Awareness: The continuous display of the aircraft's heading along with the relative position of navigation stations helps pilots maintain a better understanding of their current navigational environment.

6. Interpretation of Indications

Aircraft Heading: The top of the RMI compass card always shows the current heading of the aircraft in degrees magnetic.

Relative Bearings:

If the needle points directly at the top (360°), the station is directly ahead.

If it points to the bottom (180°), the station is directly behind.

Any other indication shows the station's direction relative to the aircraft’s nose.

7. Practical Application

For instance, if the aircraft is on a heading of 090° (due east) and the VOR needle points to 270°, this indicates that the VOR station is directly behind the aircraft. If the needle points to 045°, the station is ahead to the right, at a 45° angle.

8. Benefits of Using an RMI

Simplified Interpretation: The RMI provides an intuitive and continuous display of heading and bearing information.

Enhanced Situational Awareness: Pilots can easily determine if they are flying towards or away from a station without needing to interpret complex directional data.

Reduced Workload: The combined heading and navigation information simplifies navigation tasks and reduces pilot workload, especially during critical phases of flight such as approach or when navigating in unfamiliar areas.

Summary

The RMI is a navigation instrument that integrates magnetic heading with real-time directional information from VOR and ADF signals, allowing pilots to visually track the bearings to or from navigation aids. By consistently updating the heading and showing the direction to navigational stations, it greatly enhances situational awareness and assists in precise navigation.