STATION PRESSURE

Station pressure is the actual atmospheric pressure at the elevation of the observing station. It is, in other words, the actual weight of a column of air extending up from the station level to the outer limit of the atmosphere. The value is determined directly from the mercury barometer at the observing station.

For example: The weight of the atmosphere decreases with altitude, the atmospheric pressure reading at a station at 5.000 feet elevation will be less than that at a station at 1,000 feet and still less than that at a station at sea level.

MEAN SEA LEVEL PRESSURE

CIG means IFR conditions caused by low ceilings.

VIS means visibility

RA means rain. SN means snow. BR means mist.

On the TC exam you have to choose the "most correct" answer. In this case 2 are correct answers but the one that mentions the ceilings is "more correct".

Option 1: IFR ceiling and visibility in rain and mist

Option 2: IFR ceilings in rain, snow, and mist

virga are associated with precipitation that does not reach the ground, often happening in isolated locations on sometimes, the finest of days. However, on some occasions, virga can lead to the development of microbursts, which pose a dangerous threat to planes and aircraft.

Radiation fog is formed on clear nights with light winds. The ground cools losing heat through radiation. The air in direct contact with the earth’s surface is cooled. If the air is moist and the temperature is lowered below the dewpoint, fog will form.

The primary conditions conducive to the formation of radiation fog include:

1. Clear Skies and Light Winds: Clear skies allow for efficicent radiative cooling of the Earth’s surface, while light winds prevent the mixing of the air near the surface.
2. Cooling of the surface: The near surface air cool rapidly during the nighttime and this cooling causes the air temperature to drop to the dew point temperature, leading to the condensation of water vapor and the formation of fog.
3. Moist air

Radiation fog is formed on clear nights with light winds. The ground cools losing heat through radiation. The air in direct contact with the earth’s surface is cooled. If the air is moist and the temperature is lowered below the dewpoint, fog will form.

The primary conditions conducive to the formation of radiation fog include:

1. Clear Skies and Light Winds: Clear skies allow for efficicent radiative cooling of the Earth’s surface, while light winds prevent the mixing of the air near the surface.
2. Cooling of the surface: The near surface air cool rapidly during the nighttime and this cooling causes the air temperature to drop to the dew point temperature, leading to the condensation of water vapor and the formation of fog.
3. Moist air

In-f light meteorological information (VOLMET) is meteorological information for aircraft in flight, particularly over the high seas. VOLMET contains aerodrome routine meteorological reports (METARs) and aerodrome forecasts (TAFs) for selected aerodromes and may be provided either by data link (D-VOLMET) or by voice broadcasts on designated frequencies, normally high frequency (HF).

Source: Air Command Weather Manual

Clear air turbulence is most likely to occur in an upper trough on the polar side of a jet stream.

AIM MET 1.2.5.2

Ref: AIM MET 1.4 IN-FLIGHT METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION (VOLMET) P125

VOLMET contains aerodrome routine meteorological reports (METARs) and aerodrome forecasts (TAFs) for selected aerodromes and may be provided either by data link (D-VOLMET) or by voice broadcasts on designated frequencies, normally high frequency (HF).

Ice pellets imply freezing rain aloft

Ice pellets imply freezing rain aloft

Reference: Air Command Weather Manual 11-12

Sublimation is the transition of a substance directly from a solid state to a gas state. It does not pass through the usual liquid state. It happens in very cold temperatures when moisture is added to the air from furnaces, aircraft engines etc.

From the Ground Up

AIM AIR 2.12.3.1

For any ice to form the OAT must be at or below freezing with the presence of visible moisture.

Rime ice commonly found in stratiform clouds, low catch rate is granular, opaque and pebbly and adheres to the leading edges of antennas and windshields. Rime ice forms in low temperatures with a low concentration of small super-cooled droplets. It has little tendency to spread and can easily be removed by aircraft de-icing systems. Between 0 to -20C.

Clear ice commonly found in cumuliform clouds is glassy, smooth and hard, and tends to spread back from the area of impingement. Clear ice forms at temperatures at or just below 0°C with a high concentration of large super-cooled droplets. It is the most serious form of icing because it adheres firmly and is difficult to remove.

Frost may form on an aircraft in flight when descent is made from below-freezing conditions to a layer of warm, moist air. In these circumstances, vision may be restricted as frost forms on the windshield or canopy.

Air Command Weather Manual

Air Command Weather Manual

If air pressure increases, the temperature must increase. If air pressure decreases, the temperature decreases. It also explains why air gets colder at higher altitudes, where pressure is lower.

Reference: AIM MET 4.12 (d)

The air masses over Canada in the summer are: Maritime Arctic, Maritime Polar, Maritime Tropical

From the Ground Up

The question is asking for the width so you have to take 4NM either side of centreline x 2 = 8 NM.

PSR function: Detect weather and non transponder traffic.

PSR fixes its target by its return echo and is used in PAR approaches. PSR computes target positions by determining the range and azimuth of transmitted and reflected radio frequency energy. It is a passive surveillance system and therefore does not rely on information transmitted from the aircraft. Transponder is not required and it doesn't provide altitude.

Note: Another word for azimuth is bearing. Basically the airplanes bearing from either True/Magnetic North

SSR function: Uses transponder, cannot detect weather information

SSR determines aircraft range by measuring the interval between transmitting an interrogation to and receiving a reply from an airborne transponder. SSR is a cooperative surveillance system and does not provide a position for an aircraft with an operating transponder.

Increased range, position identification of the aircraft, aircraft altitude.

AIM COM 5.3.1 Aircraft-Based Augmentation System (ABAS)

RAIM and FDE functions in current IFR-certified avionics are considered ABAS. RAIM can provide the integrity for the en route, terminal, and NPA phases of flight. FDE improves the continuity of operation in the event of a satellite failure and can support primary-means oceanic operations.

RAIM uses extra satellites in view to compare solutions and detect problems. It usually takes four satellites to compute a navigation solution, and a minimum of 5 for RAIM to function. The availability of RAIM is a function of the number of visible satellites and their geometry. It is complicated by the movement of satellites relative to a coverage area and temporary satellite outages resulting from scheduled maintenance or failures.

If the number of satellites in view and their geometry do not support the applicable alert limit (2 NM en route, 1 NM terminal and 0.3 NM NPA), RAIM is unable to guarantee the integrity of the position solution. (Note that this does not imply a satellite malfunction.) In this case, the RAIM function in the avionics will alert the pilot, but will continue providing a navigation solution. Except in cases of emergency, pilots must discontinue using GNSS for IFR navigation when such an alert occurs.

A second type of RAIM alert occurs when the avionics detects a satellite range error (typically caused by a satellite malfunction) that may cause an accuracy degradation that exceeds the alert limit for the current phase of flight. When this occurs, the avionics alerts the pilot and denies navigation guidance by displaying red flags on the HSI or CDI. Continued flight using GNSS is then not possible until the satellite is flagged as unhealthy by the control centre, or normal satellite operation is restored.

Some avionics go beyond basic RAIM by having an FDE feature that allows the avionics to detect which satellite is faulty, and then to exclude it from the navigation solution. FDE requires a minimum of 6 satellites with good geometry to function. It has the advantage of allowing continued navigation in the presence of a satellite malfunction.

Most first generation avionics do not have FDE and were designed when GPS had a feature called SA that deliberately degraded accuracy. SA has since been discontinued, and new generation SBAS-capable receivers (TSO-C145a/C146a) account for SA being terminated. These receivers experience a higher RAIM availability, even in the absence of SBAS messages, and also have FDE capability.

AIM COM 5.3.1 Aircraft-Based Augmentation System (ABAS)

RAIM and FDE functions in current IFR-certified avionics are considered ABAS. RAIM can provide the integrity for the en route, terminal, and NPA phases of flight. FDE improves the continuity of operation in the event of a satellite failure and can support primary-means oceanic operations.

RAIM uses extra satellites in view to compare solutions and detect problems. It usually takes four satellites to compute a navigation solution, and a minimum of 5 for RAIM to function. The availability of RAIM is a function of the number of visible satellites and their geometry. It is complicated by the movement of satellites relative to a coverage area and temporary satellite outages resulting from scheduled maintenance or failures.

If the number of satellites in view and their geometry do not support the applicable alert limit (2 NM en route, 1 NM terminal and 0.3 NM NPA), RAIM is unable to guarantee the integrity of the position solution. (Note that this does not imply a satellite malfunction.) In this case, the RAIM function in the avionics will alert the pilot, but will continue providing a navigation solution. Except in cases of emergency, pilots must discontinue using GNSS for IFR navigation when such an alert occurs.

A second type of RAIM alert occurs when the avionics detects a satellite range error (typically caused by a satellite malfunction) that may cause an accuracy degradation that exceeds the alert limit for the current phase of flight. When this occurs, the avionics alerts the pilot and denies navigation guidance by displaying red flags on the HSI or CDI. Continued flight using GNSS is then not possible until the satellite is flagged as unhealthy by the control centre, or normal satellite operation is restored.

Some avionics go beyond basic RAIM by having an FDE feature that allows the avionics to detect which satellite is faulty, and then to exclude it from the navigation solution. FDE requires a minimum of 6 satellites with good geometry to function. It has the advantage of allowing continued navigation in the presence of a satellite malfunction.

Most first generation avionics do not have FDE and were designed when GPS had a feature called SA that deliberately degraded accuracy. SA has since been discontinued, and new generation SBAS-capable receivers (TSO-C145a/C146a) account for SA being terminated. These receivers experience a higher RAIM availability, even in the absence of SBAS messages, and also have FDE capability.

AIM COM 5.3.1 Aircraft-Based Augmentation System (ABAS)

RAIM and FDE functions in current IFR-certified avionics are considered ABAS. RAIM can provide the integrity for the en route, terminal, and NPA phases of flight. FDE improves the continuity of operation in the event of a satellite failure and can support primary-means oceanic operations.

RAIM uses extra satellites in view to compare solutions and detect problems. It usually takes four satellites to compute a navigation solution, and a minimum of 5 for RAIM to function. The availability of RAIM is a function of the number of visible satellites and their geometry. It is complicated by the movement of satellites relative to a coverage area and temporary satellite outages resulting from scheduled maintenance or failures.

If the number of satellites in view and their geometry do not support the applicable alert limit (2 NM en route, 1 NM terminal and 0.3 NM NPA), RAIM is unable to guarantee the integrity of the position solution. (Note that this does not imply a satellite malfunction.) In this case, the RAIM function in the avionics will alert the pilot, but will continue providing a navigation solution. Except in cases of emergency, pilots must discontinue using GNSS for IFR navigation when such an alert occurs.

A second type of RAIM alert occurs when the avionics detects a satellite range error (typically caused by a satellite malfunction) that may cause an accuracy degradation that exceeds the alert limit for the current phase of flight. When this occurs, the avionics alerts the pilot and denies navigation guidance by displaying red flags on the HSI or CDI. Continued flight using GNSS is then not possible until the satellite is flagged as unhealthy by the control centre, or normal satellite operation is restored.

Some avionics go beyond basic RAIM by having an FDE feature that allows the avionics to detect which satellite is faulty, and then to exclude it from the navigation solution. FDE requires a minimum of 6 satellites with good geometry to function. It has the advantage of allowing continued navigation in the presence of a satellite malfunction.

Most first generation avionics do not have FDE and were designed when GPS had a feature called SA that deliberately degraded accuracy. SA has since been discontinued, and new generation SBAS-capable receivers (TSO-C145a/C146a) account for SA being terminated. These receivers experience a higher RAIM availability, even in the absence of SBAS messages, and also have FDE capability.

AIM COM 5.3.1 Aircraft-Based Augmentation System (ABAS)

RAIM and FDE functions in current IFR-certified avionics are considered ABAS. RAIM can provide the integrity for the en route, terminal, and NPA phases of flight. FDE improves the continuity of operation in the event of a satellite failure and can support primary-means oceanic operations.

RAIM uses extra satellites in view to compare solutions and detect problems. It usually takes four satellites to compute a navigation solution, and a minimum of 5 for RAIM to function. The availability of RAIM is a function of the number of visible satellites and their geometry. It is complicated by the movement of satellites relative to a coverage area and temporary satellite outages resulting from scheduled maintenance or failures.

If the number of satellites in view and their geometry do not support the applicable alert limit (2 NM en route, 1 NM terminal and 0.3 NM NPA), RAIM is unable to guarantee the integrity of the position solution. (Note that this does not imply a satellite malfunction.) In this case, the RAIM function in the avionics will alert the pilot, but will continue providing a navigation solution. Except in cases of emergency, pilots must discontinue using GNSS for IFR navigation when such an alert occurs.

A second type of RAIM alert occurs when the avionics detects a satellite range error (typically caused by a satellite malfunction) that may cause an accuracy degradation that exceeds the alert limit for the current phase of flight. When this occurs, the avionics alerts the pilot and denies navigation guidance by displaying red flags on the HSI or CDI. Continued flight using GNSS is then not possible until the satellite is flagged as unhealthy by the control centre, or normal satellite operation is restored.

Some avionics go beyond basic RAIM by having an FDE feature that allows the avionics to detect which satellite is faulty, and then to exclude it from the navigation solution. FDE requires a minimum of 6 satellites with good geometry to function. It has the advantage of allowing continued navigation in the presence of a satellite malfunction.

Most first generation avionics do not have FDE and were designed when GPS had a feature called SA that deliberately degraded accuracy. SA has since been discontinued, and new generation SBAS-capable receivers (TSO-C145a/C146a) account for SA being terminated. These receivers experience a higher RAIM availability, even in the absence of SBAS messages, and also have FDE capability.

AIM COM 5.3.1 Aircraft-Based Augmentation System (ABAS)

RAIM and FDE functions in current IFR-certified avionics are considered ABAS. RAIM can provide the integrity for the en route, terminal, and NPA phases of flight. FDE improves the continuity of operation in the event of a satellite failure and can support primary-means oceanic operations.

RAIM uses extra satellites in view to compare solutions and detect problems. It usually takes four satellites to compute a navigation solution, and a minimum of 5 for RAIM to function. The availability of RAIM is a function of the number of visible satellites and their geometry. It is complicated by the movement of satellites relative to a coverage area and temporary satellite outages resulting from scheduled maintenance or failures.

If the number of satellites in view and their geometry do not support the applicable alert limit (2 NM en route, 1 NM terminal and 0.3 NM NPA), RAIM is unable to guarantee the integrity of the position solution. (Note that this does not imply a satellite malfunction.) In this case, the RAIM function in the avionics will alert the pilot, but will continue providing a navigation solution. Except in cases of emergency, pilots must discontinue using GNSS for IFR navigation when such an alert occurs.

A second type of RAIM alert occurs when the avionics detects a satellite range error (typically caused by a satellite malfunction) that may cause an accuracy degradation that exceeds the alert limit for the current phase of flight. When this occurs, the avionics alerts the pilot and denies navigation guidance by displaying red flags on the HSI or CDI. Continued flight using GNSS is then not possible until the satellite is flagged as unhealthy by the control centre, or normal satellite operation is restored.

Some avionics go beyond basic RAIM by having an FDE feature that allows the avionics to detect which satellite is faulty, and then to exclude it from the navigation solution. FDE requires a minimum of 6 satellites with good geometry to function. It has the advantage of allowing continued navigation in the presence of a satellite malfunction.

Most first generation avionics do not have FDE and were designed when GPS had a feature called SA that deliberately degraded accuracy. SA has since been discontinued, and new generation SBAS-capable receivers (TSO-C145a/C146a) account for SA being terminated. These receivers experience a higher RAIM availability, even in the absence of SBAS messages, and also have FDE capability.

Highest to lowest reflectivity:

The VOR Reception Range Formula

VOR Reception Range = 1.23  x √(square root) Height of the aircraft AGL

= 1.23 x √(3000-1400)
= 1.23 x √1600
= 1.23 x 40
= 49.2

Pay close attention to the answer wording. One choice says "Maintain a constant attitude" and another "Maintain a constant altitude"

TC AIM Air 2.8

If you enter a thunderstorm:

(a)  Concentrate on your instruments; looking outside increases the danger of temporary blindness from lightning.

(b)  Don’t change power settings; maintain the settings for turbulence penetration airspeed.

(c)  Don’t attempt to keep a constant rigid altitude; let the aircraft “ride the waves”. Manoeuvres in trying to maintain constant

Fuel Requirements:

Taxi Fuel: 40 lbs
Climb Fuel: 200 lbs (600 lbs/hour divided by 60 mins x 20 min climb.)
Cruise Fuel: 833 lbs (Subtract the 20 min climb from the total flight time of 2 hours. Time in cruise is 1 hour 40 mins or 1.67 hours. 500 lbs/hour x 1.67)
Contingency 45 mins: 375 lbs (Since there is thunderstorms at destination we have to include this fuel.)
Holding Fuel: (This was added in as a trick. Ignore it as it doesn’t apply for VFR fuel requirements.)

Reserve Fuel 45 mins at night: 375 lbs (This is a CAR requirement, see below.)

Answer: 1823 lbs

Reference:

CAR 602.88 (1) This section does not apply in respect of any glider, balloon or ultra-light aeroplane.

(2) No pilot-in-command of an aircraft shall commence a flight or, during flight, change the destination aerodrome set out in the flight plan or flight itinerary, unless the aircraft carries sufficient fuel to ensure compliance with subsections (3) to (5).

(3) An aircraft operated in VFR flight shall carry an amount of fuel that is sufficient to allow the aircraft

(a) in the case of an aircraft other than a helicopter,

(i) when operated during the day, to fly to the destination aerodrome and then to fly for a period of 30 minutes at normal cruising speed, or

(ii) when operated at night, to fly to the destination aerodrome and then to fly for a period of 45 minutes at normal cruising speed.

They might even ask this question another way.

What would cause the weather radar to NOT detect embedded TS?

This is due to attenuation, which causes a rain shadow.

Slant Visual Range is the visibility from the cockpit to the ground and features ahead; it's the view down the approach path. It is usually poorer as the distance through the fog is greater.

A headwind will push this point closer to the destination and a tailwind closer to the departure aerodrome.

CP moves in direction the wind is coming from... So from departure it will be closer to departure airport

Critical Point is the point at which it takes the same time to continue to the destination as it does to return to the point of departure. In no winds, this point is half the distance to your destination. In a tailwind situation, you will reach this point sooner because of the increased time it will take you to fly back (return trip in headwind). In a headwind, it will be closer to the destination because a return trip in a tailwind would cover more ground in the same time it would take you to fly the remaining distance to your destination.

For example: If you were flying to your destination at 150 kts TAS and you encountered a headwind of 50 kts, your GS to your destination would be 100kts and your GS back to your departure airport would be 200 kts.

If the total distance you had to fly was 300 NM in no winds, the flight would take 2 hours.

Arrival: if you were 100nm from your destination, you would still be 1 hour from arriving.

Departure: At that same point, you would be 200nm from where you departed, yet still 1 hour away from there. That is why the CP moves into the wind

AIM COM 4.7 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) 

The DME slant range error is the greatest when the airplane is at a high altitude close to or over the ground station. Moreover, slant range error also affects groundspeed and time-to-staion displays when you are close to the station.

AIM 11.4.5 Northern Control Area (NCA) Random Routes

Within the Northern Control Area (NCA), flights operating on random routes shall flight plan and make positions reports as follows:

(a)  flights operating on predominately N or S tracks (315 ̊T clockwise through 045 ̊T or the reciprocals) shall report over reporting line points formed by the intersection of parallels of latitude spaced at 5 ̊ intervals expressed in latitude by whole degrees and meridians of longitude expressed in either whole degrees or whole and half degrees;

(b)  south of 75 ̊N latitude, flights operating on predominately east or west tracks (046 ̊T clockwise through 134 ̊T or the reciprocals) shall report over reporting line points formed by the intersection of either whole degrees or whole and half degrees of latitude coincident with each 10 ̊ of longitude. For flights operating north of 75 ̊N latitude, where 20 ̊ of longitude is traversed in less than 60 min, reporting line points are to be defined by parallels of latitude expressed in degrees and minutes coincident with meridians of longitude at 20 ̊ intervals;

(c)  as requested by ATS.

AIM 1.9.1 Oceanic Clearances

AIM Abnormally High Altimeter Settings

Cold dry air masses can produce barometric pressures in excess of 31.00 in. of mercury. Because barometric readings of 31.00 in. of mercury or higher rarely occur, most standard altimeters do not permit setting of barometric pressures above that level and are not calibrated to indicate accurate aircraft altitude above 31.00 in. of mercury. As a result, most aircraft altimeters cannot be set to provide accurate altitude readouts to the pilot in these situations.

When aircraft operate in areas where the altimeter setting is in excess of 31.00 in. of mercury and the aircraft altimeter cannot be set above 31.00 in. of mercury, the true altitude of the aircraft will be HIGHER than the indicated altitude.

Cold dry air masses can produce barometric pressures in excess of 31.00 inches of mercury. Because barometric readings of 31.00 inches of mercury or higher rarely occur, most standard altimeters do not permit the setting of barometric pressures above that level and are not calibrated to indicate accurate aircraft altitude above 31.00 inches of mercury. As a result, most altimeters cannot be set to provide accurate altitude readouts to the pilot in these situations.  ATC will issue actual altimeter settings and will confirm with the pilot that 31.00 inches of mercury is set on the pilot’s altimeters for enroute operations below 18 000 feet ASL in the affected areas.

Aerodromes that are unable to accurately measure barometric pressures above 31.00 inches of mercury will report the barometric pressure as “in excess of 31.00 inches of mercury”. Flight operations to and from those aerodromes are restricted to VFR weather conditions. 

When the barometric pressure exceeds 31.00 inches of mercury, the following procedures take effect:  Altimeters of all IFR, controlled VFR flight (CVFR) and VFR aircraft are to be set to 31.00 inches of mercury for enroute operations below 18 000 feet ASL. All pilots are to maintain this setting until beyond the area affected by the extreme high pressure or until reaching the final approach segment of an instrument approach for IFR aircraft or the final approach for VFR aircraft.

At the beginning of the final approach segment, the current altimeter setting will be set by those aircraft capable of such a setting. Aircraft that are unable to set altimeter settings above 31.00 inches of mercury will retain a 31.00 inches of mercury setting throughout the entire approach.

Aircraft on departure or missed approach will set 31.00 inches of mercury prior to reaching any mandatory or fix crossing altitude, or 1 500 feet above ground level (AGL), whichever is lower.  For aircraft operating IFR that are unable to set the current altimeter setting, the following restrictions apply:  To determine the suitability of departure alternate aerodromes, destination aerodromes and destination alternate aerodromes, increase the ceiling requirements by 100 feet and visibility requirements by 1/4 statute mile (SM) for each 1/10 inch of mercury, or any portion thereof, over 31.00 inches of mercury. These adjusted values are then applied in accordance with the requirements of the applicable operating regulations and operations specifications. 

Example: Destination altimeter setting is 31.28 inches, instrument landing system (ILS) decision height (DH) is 250 feet (200-1/2). When flight planning, add 300-3/4 to the weather requirements, which would now become 500-1 1/4. 

During the instrument approach, 31.00 inches of mercury will remain set. DH or Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) will be deemed to have been reached when the published altitude is displayed on the altimeter.  Note: Although visibility is normally the limiting factor on an approach, pilots should be aware that when reaching DH, the aircraft will be higher than indicated by the altimeter, which in some cases could be as much as 300 feet higher.  Authorized CAT II and III ILS operations are not affected by the above restrictions.  Night VFR pilots are advised that under conditions of altimeter settings above 31.00 inches of mercury and aircraft altimeters not capable of setting above 31.00 inches of mercury, the aircraft’s true altitude will be higher than the indicated altitude; this must be taken into consideration. If an instrument approach procedure is to be flown, the night VFR pilot should follow the procedures described above for aircraft operating IFR.    For aircraft with the capability of setting the current altimeter setting and operating into aerodromes with the capability of measuring the current altimeter setting, no additional restrictions apply.  For aircraft operating VFR, no additional restrictions apply; however, extra diligence in flight planning and in operating in these conditions is essential.