Reference: AIM COM 5.4.1

Reference: CAP GEN page 30

Reference: CAP GEN page 30

Method 1: Pencil and Heading indicator

We are flying a heading of 341 degrees (no wind) on V13.

There are 2 V13's, use the one from North bay to Timmins as that's the direction we are flying on this cross-country.

Using the pencil and heading indicator method. We use the left thumb to move the line up.

Now we can draw the quadrants and input the 020 degree radial. We get a parallel entry.

Method 2: Chart method

We must first draw the racetrack on the inbound radial. In this example we are doing left turns. Then we must bend the line towards the racetrack. We can now draw the quadrants. Since, we are coming in from the SW, the entry would be a parallel entry.

Reference: AIM RAC 6.3.2.2

If failure occurs after you have received and acknowledged a holding instruction, hold as directed and commence an instrument approach at the EAT or expected further clearance time (EFC), whichever has been issued.

If the holding fix is not a fix from which an approach begins, leave the fix at the expected further clearance time if one has been received. If none has been received, proceed to a fix from which an approach begins upon arrival over the clearance limit. Commence descent and/or approach as close as possible to the ETA as calculated from the filed estimated time en route or as amended with ATC.

Conduct a straight-in approach and landing without unexpected manoeuvring.

If the communications failure occurs while being vectored at a vectoring altitude that is lower than a published IFR altitude (e.g. minimum sector altitude 25 NM), the pilot shall immediately climb to and maintain the appropriate minimum IFR altitude until arrival at a fix associated with the instrument procedure.

If the failure occurs in IMC, the pilot-in-command shall continue the flight according to the following:

By the Route:

A) by the route assigned in the last ATC clearance
received and acknowledged;

B) if being vectored, by the direct route from the
point of communications failure to the fix, route,
or airway specified in the vector clearance;

C) in the absence of an assigned route, by the route that ATC has advised may be expected in a
further clearance; or

in the absence of an assigned route or route
that ATC has advised may be expected in a further clearance, by the route filed in the flight plan.

By the Altitude:

At the highest of the following altitudes for the route segment being flown:

A) the altitude assigned in the last ATC clearance received and acknowledged;

B) the minimum IFR altitude; or

C) the altitude has advised may be expected in a further clearance. (The pilot shall commence climb to this altitude/FL at the time or point specified by ATC to expect further clearance/ altitude change.)

We are on the Toronto CZYZ side of the FIR boundary line. We are flying IFR at 8,000 ft so we must contact a "Centre" frequency, not just broadcast on the radio.

Find the PAL (peripheral remote site for extended range) box to read the Toronto Centre frequency.

This is supported a second time by referring to each aerodrome chart

Reference: AIM RAC 8.4.1

Reference: AIM RAC 8.2.1 and 8.2.2

Reference AIM AIR 2.7.2 and FTGU 6.9.2 Thunderstorm Avoidance

AIM COM 5.3.1 Aircraft-Based Augmentation System (ABAS)

RAIM and FDE functions in current IFR-certified avionics are considered ABAS. RAIM can provide the integrity for the en route, terminal, and NPA phases of flight. FDE improves the continuity of operation in the event of a satellite failure and can support primary-means oceanic operations.

RAIM uses extra satellites in view to compare solutions and detect problems. It usually takes four satellites to compute a navigation solution, and a minimum of 5 for RAIM to function. The availability of RAIM is a function of the number of visible satellites and their geometry. It is complicated by the movement of satellites relative to a coverage area and temporary satellite outages resulting from scheduled maintenance or failures.

If the number of satellites in view and their geometry do not support the applicable alert limit (2 NM en route, 1 NM terminal and 0.3 NM NPA), RAIM is unable to guarantee the integrity of the position solution. (Note that this does not imply a satellite malfunction.) In this case, the RAIM function in the avionics will alert the pilot, but will continue providing a navigation solution. Except in cases of emergency, pilots must discontinue using GNSS for IFR navigation when such an alert occurs.

A second type of RAIM alert occurs when the avionics detects a satellite range error (typically caused by a satellite malfunction) that may cause an accuracy degradation that exceeds the alert limit for the current phase of flight. When this occurs, the avionics alerts the pilot and denies navigation guidance by displaying red flags on the HSI or CDI. Continued flight using GNSS is then not possible until the satellite is flagged as unhealthy by the control centre, or normal satellite operation is restored.

Some avionics go beyond basic RAIM by having an FDE feature that allows the avionics to detect which satellite is faulty, and then to exclude it from the navigation solution. FDE requires a minimum of 6 satellites with good geometry to function. It has the advantage of allowing continued navigation in the presence of a satellite malfunction.

Most first generation avionics do not have FDE and were designed when GPS had a feature called SA that deliberately degraded accuracy. SA has since been discontinued, and new generation SBAS-capable receivers (TSO-C145a/C146a) account for SA being terminated. These receivers experience a higher RAIM availability, even in the absence of SBAS messages, and also have FDE capability.

AIM RAC 2.8.6 Class F Airspace

Class F airspace is airspace of defined dimensions within which activities must be confined because of their nature, and within which limitations may be imposed upon aircraft operations that are not a part of those activities.

Class F airspace may be restricted airspace, advisory airspace, military operations areas, or danger areas and can be controlled airspace, uncontrolled airspace, or a combination of both.

Unless otherwise specified, the rules for the surrounding airspace apply in areas of Class F airspace, no matter if these areas are active or inactive.

Class F airspace is designated in the DAH (TP 1820) and published on the appropriate aeronautical charts.

Reference FTGU 6.9.2

Reference: AIM RAC 9.6.1

A contact approach is an approach wherein an aircraft on an IFR flight plan or flight itinerary having an ATC clearance, operating clear of clouds with at least 1 NM flight visibility and a reasonable expectation of continuing to the destination airport in those conditions, may deviate from the IAP and proceed to the destination airport by visual reference to the surface of the earth. In accordance with CAR 602.124, the aircraft shall be flown at an altitude of at least 1 000 ft above the highest obstacle located within a horizontal radius of 5 NM from the estimated position of the aircraft in flight until the required visual reference is acquired in order to conduct a normal landing.  Familiarity with the aerodrome environment, including local area obstacles, terrain, noise sensitive areas, Class F airspace and aerodrome layout, is paramount for a successful contact approach in minimum visibility conditions. Pilots are responsible for the adherence to published noise abatement procedures and compliance with any restrictions that may apply to Class F airspace when conducting a contact approach.

NOTE:
This type of approach will only be authorized by ATC when:

1. the pilot requests it; and
2. there is an approved functioning instrument approach, a published GNSS or a GNSS overlay approach for the airport.

Distance Measuring Equipment (DME): It is used to measure in nautical miles the slant range distance between the airplane and the DME  facility.

The Black Hole Illusion is a phenomenon that occurs when an aircraft is approaching a runway over dark or featureless terrain, particularly at night. This illusion can affect the pilot’s perception of altitude, which may lead to dangerous situations, such as an undershoot or an accidental crash.

What happens during the Black Hole Illusion:

1. Lack of Visual References: In normal daylight conditions, pilots rely on visual cues from the surrounding environment (such as lights, buildings, terrain, or other visual markers) to gauge their altitude and distance from the runway. However, when approaching over dark or featureless terrain, these visual cues are either absent or minimal. This is often the case when the runway is located over a dark area, such as a forest, ocean, or an unlit urban landscape, which creates a "black hole" effect.
2. Effect on the Pilot's Perception: As the aircraft descends, the absence of visual references gives the pilot the impression that they are higher than they actually are. This occurs because the human eye tends to misjudge altitude when there is little or no contrast between the aircraft and the surrounding environment. The pilot might believe they are closer to the ground than they actually are, leading to an attempt to lower the aircraft too much.
3. Risk of Undershoot: The primary danger associated with the Black Hole Illusion is the tendency for the pilot to descend too quickly, resulting in an undershoot of the runway. Since there are few or no ground lights or features to provide a sense of depth, the pilot might not realize they are still too high and will continue descending too aggressively, potentially leading to a crash or a missed approach.
4. The Role of the PAPI or VASI: Pilots rely on systems like the Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) or the Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) to maintain a proper approach angle. If the aircraft is on a correct approach path, these systems provide visual guidance to help prevent the black hole illusion. However, if the aircraft is too high or too low, these systems will indicate the need for a correction. In the absence of a PAPI or VASI, the risk of the Black Hole Illusion increases.
5. Mitigating the Black Hole Illusion:
   • Use of Instrumentation: Pilots are trained to rely on instruments, such as the altimeter and glideslope, especially during night landings or in situations where visual cues are limited.
   • Approach Planning: It’s important for pilots to plan the approach carefully and be aware of the lack of visual cues when approaching over dark terrain. In such cases, it is crucial to follow the prescribed approach path and use all available instruments to confirm altitude and descent rate.
   • Landing with Visual References: Ideally, pilots should land when they have sufficient visual references available. If this is not possible, a missed approach should be initiated rather than continuing a potentially unsafe landing.

Key Points of the Black Hole Illusion:

• Occurs when flying over dark or featureless terrain, particularly at night.
• The absence of visual references can cause pilots to misjudge altitude.
• It often leads to an undershoot because the pilot perceives they are higher than they are.
• It is a serious risk, especially when the runway is not well-lit or when the terrain around it is unlit.
• Pilots can mitigate the risk by relying on instruments and not relying on visual cues alone.

In conclusion, the Black Hole Illusion is a dangerous optical illusion that occurs during night landings, particularly when approaching over dark terrain. Proper training, use of instruments, and a disciplined approach to flying can help prevent accidents resulting from this illusion.

Aircraft Icing

602.11 (1) In this section, critical surfaces means the wings, control surfaces, rotors, propellers, horizontal stabilizers, vertical stabilizers or any other stabilizing surfaces of an aircraft, as well as any other surfaces identified as critical surfaces in the aircraft flight manual.

(2) No person shall conduct or attempt to conduct a take-off in an aircraft that has frost, ice or snow adhering to any of its critical surfaces.

(3) Despite subsection (2), a person may conduct a take-off in an aircraft that has frost caused by cold-soaked fuel adhering to the underside or upper side, or both, of its wings if the take-off is conducted in accordance with the aircraft manufacturer’s instructions for take-off under those conditions.

(4) Where conditions are such that frost, ice or snow may reasonably be expected to adhere to the aircraft, no person shall conduct or attempt to conduct a take-off in an aircraft unless

(a) for aircraft that are not operated under Subpart 5 of Part VII,

(i) the aircraft has been inspected immediately prior to take-off to determine whether any frost, ice or snow is adhering to any of its critical surfaces, or

(ii) the operator has established an aircraft inspection program in accordance with the Operating and Flight Rules Standards, and the dispatch and take-off of the aircraft are in accordance with that program; and

(b) for aircraft that are operated under Subpart 5 of Part VII, the operator has established an aircraft inspection program in accordance with the Operating and Flight Rules Standards, and the dispatch and take-off of the aircraft are in accordance with that program.

(5) The inspection referred to in subparagraph (4)(a)(i) shall be performed by

(a) the pilot-in-command;

(b) a flight crew member of the aircraft who is designated by the pilot-in-command; or

(c) a person, other than a person referred to in paragraph (a) or (b), who

(i) is designated by the operator of the aircraft, and

(ii) has successfully completed training relating to ground and airborne icing operations under Subpart 4 or relating to aircraft surface contamination under Part VII.

(6) Where, before commencing take-off, a crew member of an aircraft observes that there is frost, ice or snow adhering to the wings of the aircraft, the crew member shall immediately report that observation to the pilot-in-command, and the pilot-in-command or a flight crew member designated by the pilot-in-command shall inspect the wings of the aircraft before take-off.

(7) Before an aircraft is de-iced or anti-iced, the pilot-in-command of the aircraft shall ensure that the crew members and passengers are informed of the decision to do so.

AIM AIR

Reference: AIM 1.7.3 Minimum Fuel Advisory

Reference: AIM RAC 8.5

1000 ft on the AMA outside of designated mountainous areas as shown on the Enroute and Terminal Area Charts.

Reference: AIM RAC 4.2.2

AIM RAC 1.1.2.2

Meteorological information: SIGMET, AIRMET, PIREP, aerodrome routine meteorological report (METAR), aviation selected special weather report (SPECI) , aerodrome forecast (TAF), altimeter setting, weather radar, lightning information and briefing update

If the visibility drops below the published level of service (RVR/visibility) for the intended runway after you have started taxiing, you may continue to taxi but are not permitted to take off from that runway. However, you may take off from a different runway provided it meets the required level of service for the operation.

Reference: FTGU Limitations of an Attitude Indicator

Instrument Ratings no longer expire or need to be renewed. Once endorsed on the pilot licence, the licence label will show the Group of Instrument Rating held without a valid to date.

There are two parts to the instrument recency requirements:

1. Within 24 months preceding the flight the pilot must have completed one of the following:

A) An Instrument Rating flight test;

B) A Canadian Forces Instrument Rating Flight Test;

C) An IPC;

2. Following the first day of the 13th month following the completion of one of the items in

A) above within six months preceding the flight

B) have acquired six hours of instrument time, and

C) completed six instrument approaches to minima according to approved instrument approach procedures in an aircraft or Flight Simulation Training Device (FSTD) as specified in the Exemption.

Reference: TC AIM final approach segment

Remember magnetic heading takes into account the winds.

1. Find the magnetic track from the LO chart off the YYB compass rose: 341 degrees magnetic
2. Convert the wind direction from true to magnetic. The FD’s are always in true. The magnetic variation from the LO chart is 10 degrees West. Therefore, the wind direction is: 310 deg magnetic @ 20 knots.
3. The cruise TAS: 160 knots
4. Use our flight computer to get the answer:

Magnetic Heading: 337 degrees

Groundspeed: 142 knots

Leg 1: From YYB-YTS
The distance is: 154 NM
The groundspeed from the previous question is: 142 knots
Using our flight computer to get the ETE: 1 hour 5 mins

Leg 2: From YTS-YMO

1. Find the magnetic track from the LO chart off the YYB compass rose: 020 degrees magnetic
2. Convert the wind direction from true to magnetic. The FD’s are always in true. The magnetic variation from the LO chart is 10 degrees West. Therefore, the wind direction is: 310 deg magnetic @ 20 knots.
3. The cruise TAS: 160 knots
4. Use our flight computer to get the answer: Magnetic Heading: 13 degrees and Groundspeed: 152 knots

The distance is: 166 NM
Using our flight computer to get the time: 1 hour 5 mins

Add Leg 1 and Leg 2 ETE = 1 hr 5 + 1 hr 5 = 2 hours 10 mins

Gather the Information:

• Fuel burn during climb: 500 lbs/hour
• Fuel burn during cruise: 250 lbs/hour
• Climb and cruise speed: Average groundspeed of 150 knots
• Time to climb: 12 minutes
• Approach and missed approach fuel: 100 lbs
• Contingency fuel: 120 lbs
• Route distances:
  • CYYB to YYB VOR: 8 NM
  • YYB to YTS: 154 NM
  • YTS to YMO: 166 NM
  • YMO VOR to CYMO airport: 8 NM

Step 1: Calculate Fuel and Distance During the Climb

• Time to climb: 12 minutes
• Fuel burn during climb: 500 lbs/hour
  • Fuel required for climb: 50060×12=100 lbs\frac{500}{60} \times 12 = 100 \, \text{lbs}
• Distance traveled during climb:
  • Groundspeed in climb: 150 knots
  • Time to climb: 12 minutes
  • Distance: 15060×12=30 NM\frac{150}{60} \times 12 = 30 \, \text{NM}

Step 2: Calculate Remaining Distance to Destination

• Total trip distance: 8+154+166+8=336 NM8 + 154 + 166 + 8 = 336 \, \text{NM}
• Remaining distance after climb: 336−30=306 NM336 - 30 = 306 \, \text{NM}

Step 3: Calculate Fuel Required to the Alternate

• Distance to the alternate: 306 NM (destination)+166 NM (alternate)=472 NM306 \, \text{NM} \, \text{(destination)} + 166 \, \text{NM} \, \text{(alternate)} = 472 \, \text{NM}
• Time to alternate: 472150=3.15 hours (3 hours 8 minutes)\frac{472}{150} = 3.15 \, \text{hours} \, \text{(3 hours 8 minutes)}
• Fuel burn during cruise: 250 lbs/hour
  • Fuel required for cruise: 3.15×250=783 lbs3.15 \times 250 = 783 \, \text{lbs}

Step 4: Calculate IFR Fuel Reserve

• IFR reserve (45 minutes at cruise): 25060×45=188 lbs\frac{250}{60} \times 45 = 188 \, \text{lbs}

Add Up the Fuel Requirements

• Fuel for climb: 100 lbs
• Fuel for cruise to the alternate: 783 lbs
• IFR reserve: 188 lbs
• Approach and missed approach fuel: 100 lbs
• Contingency fuel: 120 lbs

Total Fuel Required: 1,291 lbs

Reference: AIM COM 5.4.2.2

The MSA (sector altitude) is always within 25 NM of a known point, such as a VOR/NDB beacon or a runway threshold.

In this case, the safe altitude on the chart is based on the LW NDB beacon. Since we are 30 NM away, we are beyond the 25 NM safe radius and cannot use it. The next best option is to descend to the 100 NM safe altitude of 12,500 feet first.

MOOSONEE/ON

TAF CYMO 290541Z 2906/2918 VRB03KT P6SM SCT030 OVC140 TEMPO

2906/2912 BKN020 OVC100

BECMG 2912/2914 14010G20KT

FM291500 14010G20KT P6SM -SN FEW008 OVC015

FM291600 13015G25KT P6SM SN OVC020

RMK FCST BASED ON AUTO OBS. NXT FCST BY 291800Z=

PROB30 1616/1618 1SM -SN BR VV003

We can only use the LNAV minimums for a GNSS-based approach. In this case, the landing minimums are 325 ft AGL.

Therefore, without needing to calculate alternate weather minimums, we can already see that a visibility of VV003 (300 ft AGL) is below the required landing minimums of 325 ft AGL.

Note: The symbols for Freezing rain and freezing drizzle look very similar.

Remember to read the weather within the scalloped lines even if it is written farther away from the airport.

Use the scale from the legend and mark a scrap piece of paper on your exam. Then use that scrap piece of paper as your ruler to eausre the distance. We are halfway between the 60 and 120 = 90 NM.

The groundspeed of the front is 10 knots

Using our flight computer we get 9 hours ETE.

This chart is the 1800Z chart. Adding the 9 hours we get 0300Z

You have to look at the chart very carefully. Follow the meandering dashed line. One passes at the surface north of North Bay and south of Timmins.

The IFR outlook is displayed on the last series of the Clouds and Weather chart only. This gives you a further forecast of IFR conditions up to 12 hours past the last GFA chart.

Spatial coverage is divided into either convective on non-convective clouds:

Convective clouds and showers:

Non-Convective and Precipitation:

MECH- Mechanical turbulence

LEE WV - Mountain waves

Reference: CAP GEN page 31 Alternate weather minimums

The alternate minima for the previous question is 3000 feet and 3 SM. That is what the GFA must show to use it as an alternate.

However, those numbers are for "alternate planning" purposes only. Think of it like a buffer on top of the charted minimums. Since, this is our Alternate,  our plan B airport, we want it to quite good.

That being said, we now departed and have found that the weather has dropped. This is not an issue for us and we don't need to find another alternate.

As long as the actual weather is above the approach plate landing minimums" of 2000 ft and 3 SM; we can still use this airport/runway for our alternate.

Basically, all that alternate planning minimums goes out the window once airborne. As long as the weather is above the charted landing minimums we are good. If it drops below landing minimums then we need to find another alternate or land short at another airport and get more fuel/wait for our alternate to improve.

Reference: AIM RAC 9.17

...

BOTEV altitude: 2300 feet ASL and OAT is -20C

Convert to ASL:
2300 feet ASL - 968 elevation = 1332 feet AGL 

Determine correction needed:
The correction for 1000 ft at -20 = 140 ft
The correction for 332 ft at -20 = 47 ft (You must use the chart column for 1000 ft and 1500 ft, do not use the 300 ft column)
Add 140 ft + 47 ft = 187 ft

Apply to the IFR altitude
BOTEV 2300 feet ASL +187 feet = 2487 feet
Round up 2487 feet = 2500 feet ASL