Reference: AIM COM 5.4.2.2

Reference: AIM RAC 10.7

Reference: AIM RAC 7.5

CAR 602.128 Landing Minima

(1) No pilot-in-command of an IFR aircraft shall conduct an instrument approach procedure except in accordance with the minima specified in the Canada Air Pilot or the Restricted Canada Air Pilot.

(2) No pilot-in-command of an IFR aircraft shall, unless the required visual reference necessary to continue the approach to land has been established,

(a) in the case of a CAT I or CAT II precision approach, continue the final approach descent below the decision height; or

(b) in the case of a non-precision approach, descend below the minimum descent altitude.

(3) Where the pilot-in-command of an IFR aircraft conducting an instrument approach does not establish the required visual reference referred to in subsection (2), the pilot-in-command shall initiate a missed approach procedure

(a) in the case of a CAT I or CAT II precision approach, at decision height; and

(b) in the case of a non-precision approach, at the missed approach point.

(4) Despite anything in this Division, no pilot-in-command of an IFR aircraft shall conduct a precision approach to CAT II or CAT III minima unless

(a) the flight crew has received the training specified in the Manual of All Weather Operations (Categories II and III); and

(b) the aircraft is operated in accordance with the procedures, the equipment requirements and the limitations specified in the manual referred to in paragraph (a).

Canada Air Pilot GEN Landing Minima

Decreased performance shear (sudden airspeed drop) while on final approach requires the pilot to increase in power followed by a power decrease.

Increased performance shear (sudden airspeed increase) while on final approach requires the pilot to decrease in power followed by a power increase.

A Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI) is an essential instrument used in aircraft for navigation. It assists pilots in maintaining situational awareness, especially during complex navigational procedures. Here's a detailed explanation of what an RMI does, how it functions, and what it indicates:

1. Purpose of the Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI)

The RMI combines information from a magnetic compass or a heading indicator with navigation data received from radio navigation aids, such as VOR (VHF Omnidirectional Range) and ADF (Automatic Direction Finder). Its primary function is to provide pilots with real-time, accurate direction information relative to the aircraft's heading.

2. Components of an RMI

An RMI typically consists of:

Compass Card: A rotating card that shows the aircraft’s current magnetic heading. The card rotates automatically to align with the magnetic heading indicated by the gyroscopic heading system.

Needles: The RMI typically has two needles. One needle usually points to a VOR station, and the other points to an NDB (Non-Directional Beacon). Each needle is color-coded for easy identification.

Indicator Window: Displays the aircraft's heading at the top of the compass card.

3. Functionality of an RMI

Magnetic Heading: The compass card is driven by the aircraft's heading reference system and rotates to always indicate the aircraft's current magnetic heading at the top of the display.

Navigation Aid Indication: The RMI shows the bearing to specific radio navigation stations:

VOR Bearing: One needle points directly to the VOR station. This provides the magnetic bearing from the aircraft to the station.

ADF Bearing: Another needle points towards an NDB, indicating the direction to the beacon relative to the aircraft’s current position.

4. Types of Needles and Their Indications

Single-Bar Needle: This needle typically points to a VOR station. It shows the magnetic direction to the station from the aircraft, allowing the pilot to understand the radial or bearing to fly towards or away from.

Double-Bar Needle: Often used for the ADF or NDB bearing, it shows where the NDB is located relative to the aircraft.

5. How Pilots Use an RMI

Pilots use the RMI for:

Determining Position: By observing the bearings to two different navigational aids, pilots can pinpoint their location on a chart.

Intercepting and Tracking Courses: The RMI helps in intercepting and maintaining a course to or from a VOR station or tracking towards an NDB.

Navigational Awareness: The continuous display of the aircraft's heading along with the relative position of navigation stations helps pilots maintain a better understanding of their current navigational environment.

6. Interpretation of Indications

Aircraft Heading: The top of the RMI compass card always shows the current heading of the aircraft in degrees magnetic.

Relative Bearings:

If the needle points directly at the top (360°), the station is directly ahead.

If it points to the bottom (180°), the station is directly behind.

Any other indication shows the station's direction relative to the aircraft’s nose.

7. Practical Application

For instance, if the aircraft is on a heading of 090° (due east) and the VOR needle points to 270°, this indicates that the VOR station is directly behind the aircraft. If the needle points to 045°, the station is ahead to the right, at a 45° angle.

8. Benefits of Using an RMI

Simplified Interpretation: The RMI provides an intuitive and continuous display of heading and bearing information.

Enhanced Situational Awareness: Pilots can easily determine if they are flying towards or away from a station without needing to interpret complex directional data.

Reduced Workload: The combined heading and navigation information simplifies navigation tasks and reduces pilot workload, especially during critical phases of flight such as approach or when navigating in unfamiliar areas.

Summary

The RMI is a navigation instrument that integrates magnetic heading with real-time directional information from VOR and ADF signals, allowing pilots to visually track the bearings to or from navigation aids. By consistently updating the heading and showing the direction to navigational stations, it greatly enhances situational awareness and assists in precise navigation.

Reference: AIM COM 4.7

Reference: AIM COM 4.6

Human Factors For Aviation TP12863E

Note:

The Time of Useful Conciousness (TUC) or Effective Performance Time is the period of elapsed time from the interruption of normal air supply or exposure to an oxygen-poor environment until the time when the ability to function usefully is likely to be lost at which point an affected individual would no longer be capable of taking normal corrective or protective action.

Time of useful consciousness (TUC) is not the time to total unconsciousness.

The FAA handbook has slightly different numbers...

Reference: FAA Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge. Chapter 17: Aeromedical Factors.

Reference: AIM RAC 4.1.1

Controllers will apply a three-minute separation interval to any aircraft that takes off into the wake of a known heavy aircraft, or a light aircraft that takes off into the wake of a known medium aircraft if:

(a) the following aircraft starts its takeoff roll from an intersection or from a point further along the runway than the preceding aircraft; or

(b) the controller has reason to believe that the following aircraft will require more runway length for takeoff than the preceding aircraft.

ATC will also apply separation intervals of up to three minutes when the projected flight paths of any following aircraft will cross that of a preceding heavy aircraft.

Ice pellets imply freezing rain aloft

Reference: AIM COM 7.0

Angle of Bank = [TAS (Knots)/10] + 7

The floors of the different control areas are as follows:

1. Northern Control Area (NCA):
   The floor is FL230 (Flight Level 230) and above.
2. Arctic Control Area (ACA):
   The floor is FL270 (Flight Level 270) and above.
3. Southern Control Area (SCA):
   The floor is FL230 (Flight Level 230) and above.

These altitude thresholds are important for air traffic control and management in various regions of the airspace.

Below those altitudes it is class G uncontrolled airspace where you must broadcast on 126.7 prior to climbing.

There are two parts to the instrument recency requirements:

(A) Within 24 months preceding the flight the pilot must have completed one of the following:

a. An Instrument Rating flight test;

b. A Canadian Forces Instrument Rating Flight Test;

c. A foreign IFR Proficiency Check from a Contracting State having a reciprocal licensing agreement with Canada;

d. An IPC; or

e. One of the following checks for which the validity period has not expired that included the instrument portion of:

i. a proficiency check or competency check completed under Subpart 4 of Part VI;

ii. a LOE from an approved Advanced Qualification Program (AQP) conducted by a Canadian Qualification Program Evaluator;

iii. a foreign pilot proficiency / competency check approved by a Contracting State, conducted by a foreign Check Pilot authorized to conduct IPCs for commercial and private air operators of that State, while the holder is working for hire and reward for a foreign commercial or private air operator; or

iv. A PPC conducted in accordance with the PPC schedules to the Commercial Air Services Standards in respect of the corresponding aircraft operated under Subparts 2 to 5 of Part VII.

(B) Following the first day of the 13^th month following the completion of one of the items in (A) above within six months preceding the flight have acquired six hours of instrument time and completed six instrument approaches to minima according to approved instrument approach procedures in an aircraft or Flight Simulation Training Device (FSTD) as specified in the Exemption.

Reference: AIM AGA 7.6.1 VISUAL APPROACH SLOPE INDICATOR SYSTEMS (VASIS)

First determine the difference in current altimeter setting from standard.

27.92" - 29.92" = 2.0"

2.0" x 1000 = 2,000 ft

Second, determine what pressure altitude an aircraft in the Altimeter Setting Region would fly at:

at 17,000 ft the aircraft would fly a pressure altitude of 19,000 ft (17,000 ft + 2,000 ft).

Third, for an aircraft to fly in the Standard Pressure Region with a 1,000 ft minimum vertical separation.

An aircraft would be assigned no lower than FL200 (19,000 + 1,000).

29.92 be at 18,000 ft
28.92 be at 19,000 ft
27.92 be at 20,000 ft

Reference: AIM RAC 9.17 and CAP GEN page 27

The altimeter setting may be a local or a remote setting when so authorized on the instrument approach chart. A current altimeter setting is one provided by approved direct reading or remote equipment or by the most recent routine hourly weather report. These readings are considered current up to 90 min from the time of observation. Care should be exercised when using altimeter settings older than 60 min or when pressure has been reported as falling rapidly. In these instances, a value may be added to the published DH/MDA in order to compensate for falling pressure tendency (0.01 inches of mercury = 10-ft correction). When an authorized remote altimeter setting is used, the altitude correction shall be applied as indicated.

Since this question mentions a localized phenomenon, as long as the reported ground visibility is 1/2 SM, the PIC may depart IFR.

AIM AIR 2.12.3.1

For any ice to form the OAT must be at or below freezing with the presence of visible moisture.

Rime ice commonly found in stratiform clouds is granular, opaque and pebbly and adheres to the leading edges of antennas and windshields. Rime ice forms in low temperatures with a low concentration of small super-cooled droplets. It has little tendency to spread and can easily be removed by aircraft de-icing systems.

Clear ice commonly found in cumuliform clouds is glassy, smooth and hard, and tends to spread back from the area of impingement. Clear ice forms at temperatures at or just below 0°C with a high concentration of large super-cooled droplets. It is the most serious form of icing because it adheres firmly and is difficult to remove.

Frost may form on an aircraft in flight when descent is made from below-freezing conditions to a layer of warm, moist air. In these circumstances, vision may be restricted as frost forms on the windshield or canopy.

Reference: AIM RAC 11.4.4

Reference: AIM RAC 2.10 and 2.11

Reference: AIM AGA 7.6.4.3

1. Visual Illusion of Being High:

Upslope Runways: A runway that slopes upward toward the aircraft can create an optical illusion, making the pilot feel like they are higher than they actually are. This occurs because, in the pilot’s field of vision, the horizon appears to be farther away due to the runway's upward slope.

Familiarization Bias: If a pilot is used to landing on a runway that is level or has a gentler slope, the steep slope of an unfamiliar runway can throw off their depth perception. They may perceive the ground as being farther away than it really is, leading them to think they are higher above the runway than they actually are.

2. Undershooting the Approach:

Incorrect Perception of Altitude: Since the pilot may feel they are higher than they really are, they might delay their descent or reduce their rate of descent too much. This can cause the aircraft to remain above the ideal glide path for a longer period than necessary.

Overcompensation: In response to the illusion of being high, the pilot may also begin to descend more rapidly to try and "correct" their position. However, if they descend too late or too aggressively, it can result in the aircraft reaching the runway too low, causing them to undershoot the intended landing spot.

Insufficient Descent Planning: If the pilot doesn't recognize the illusion and doesn’t adjust their approach path accordingly, the aircraft may end up too high at the critical point where a decision to continue or go around must be made.

3. Other Contributing Factors:

Runway Size and Environment: In addition to the slope, other factors such as the size of the runway, surrounding terrain, or visual cues (like nearby buildings or trees) can further influence how a pilot perceives their approach and altitude.

Aircraft Performance: If the aircraft is not correctly configured for the steeper slope (e.g., with appropriate flap settings or power adjustments), this can further complicate the approach and lead to misjudgments in the descent profile.

In summary, when a pilot is approaching a runway that is steeper than they are used to, the visual illusion of being higher than they actually are can lead them to fly too high on the approach and ultimately undershoot the runway. Recognizing this illusion is crucial to making the necessary adjustments in altitude, descent rate, and approach path.

The pilot of an aircraft is approaching a runway that is wider than they are used to. This may create the illusion of the pilot being low and lead them to compensate by approaching high.

1. Visual Illusion of Being Low:

Wider Runways: A wider runway gives the pilot the impression that they are farther from the runway centerline than they actually are. The wider expanse of the runway causes the pilot’s peripheral vision to misjudge their position in relation to the runway.

Perception of Altitude: When the runway appears wider, the pilot may perceive it as if they are positioned lower than they actually are. This is due to the lack of prominent visual cues that would normally help the pilot assess their altitude relative to the runway. A wider runway reduces the apparent "narrowing" effect as the aircraft gets closer, making it harder for the pilot to judge their exact altitude.

2. Compensating by Approaching High:

Overcompensation for Illusion: In response to the perceived illusion of being low, the pilot may instinctively attempt to correct by flying higher than necessary. They may think they need to maintain a higher altitude to avoid hitting the runway or objects near the runway threshold, leading to them flying too high in their approach.

Incorrect Descent Planning: Since the pilot believes they are lower than they really are, they might reduce their descent rate or delay their descent altogether. This can result in an approach that is too high, making it more difficult to line up with the runway at the proper landing point.

Missed Approach or Go-Around: Flying too high can cause the aircraft to miss the correct glide path, possibly requiring a go-around or leading to a late and unsafe landing attempt.

3. Other Contributing Factors:

Runway Environment: The visual cues provided by the runway environment (such as lighting, surrounding terrain, or airport features) also play a role in how the pilot perceives their approach. On wider runways, these cues can be distorted, further contributing to the illusion of being low.

Aircraft Configuration and Speed: If the aircraft is not properly configured (e.g., in terms of speed or flaps), it can exacerbate the situation, leading to difficulty in correcting the approach.

Reference: From the Ground Up

Steam fog forms when cold air passes over a warm water.

The water evaporates into the cold air until the cold air becomes saturated.

The excess water vapour condenses as fog. Steam fog occurs over rivers and lakes, especially during the autumn.

The typical order of precipitation during a winter warm front (when flying from East to West through the warm front) is as follows:

1. Snow – Initially, the precipitation falls as snow, especially in colder conditions before the front arrives.
2. Ice pellets (sleet) – As the warm air starts to override the cold air, snow may partially melt into ice pellets.
3. Freezing rain – If the surface temperature is still below freezing, the ice pellets may melt into liquid rain but refreeze upon contact with the cold ground or surfaces.
4. Rain – Eventually, the temperature rises enough that the precipitation becomes liquid rain instead of freezing rain.

Freezing rain/drizzle sticks to the cold aircraft skin very fast. Ice crystals do not adhere so the conditions are improving.

The equivalent pressure levels in millibars (mb) for different altitudes are based on the standard atmospheric model, which assumes average temperature and pressure conditions. Here’s a breakdown of the equivalent pressure at the following altitudes:

1. 10,000 feet – The pressure at 10,000 feet is approximately 700 mb. This is because as altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases.
2. 5,000 feet – The pressure at 5,000 feet is about 850 mb.
3. 18,000 feet – The pressure at 18,000 feet is around 500 mb. The standard pressure at this level marks the transition from flying under "altimeter" pressure settings to "standard pressure" (29.92 inHg).
4. 34,000 feet – The pressure at 5,000 feet is about 250 mb.

For any ice to form the OAT must be at or below freezing with the presence of visible moisture.

Rime ice commonly found in stratiform clouds is granular, opaque and pebbly and adheres to the leading edges of antennas and windshields. Rime ice forms in low temperatures with a low concentration of small super-cooled droplets. It has little tendency to spread and can easily be removed by aircraft de-icing systems.

Clear ice commonly found in cumuliform clouds is glassy, smooth and hard, and tends to spread back from the area of impingement. Clear ice forms at temperatures at or just below 0°C with a high concentration of large super-cooled droplets. It is the most serious form of icing because it adheres firmly and is difficult to remove.

Frost may form on an aircraft in flight when descent is made from below-freezing conditions to a layer of warm, moist air. In these circumstances, vision may be restricted as frost forms on the windshield or canopy.

Buy Ballot's Law: When you stand with your back to the wind; the low pressure system will be to your left.

CYYZ METAR 201600Z 05020KT 1/4 SM R24L/1500FT/D SN DRSN VV007 01/M02 A2978.

VV - Vertical Visibility which means an obscured ceiling.

Draw a Compass Rose

Draw your outbound radial first. The flag shows TO the station which means we have to take the reciprocal of what is on the TOP of the VOR indicator. We want to track the 210 degree radial inbound and have set it the BOTTOM of the VOR indicator.

Draw an airplane parallel to the radial. This will help you visualize which side of the radial you are on. Since the needle is swung to the left, it indicates we are to the right side of the radial. We would have t0 turn left to catch the CDI.

Each dot of the VOR indicator represents 2 degrees. The CDI is 2 dots over. 2 x x = 4 degrees offset.

Since we are positioned to the right of the radial. 210 - 04 degrees = 206.

Calculate the Bearing From the Station

MH + RB = BTS

220 + 250 = 470 degrees

470 - 360 = 110 BTS

BFS = BTS +/- 180

110 + 180 = 290 BFS

On a compass rose draw an NDB with 290 BFS. Then draw the 080 track to the station. Remember, an NDB doesn’t have radials, but only tracks. So, you have to draw the track inbound 080. (If ATC asked you to fly outbound, you would draw 260.)

Determine if the intercept is either to the right or left.

In this case, we have to fly to the right to intercept the track. So, add 45 degrees to 080.

Answer: 125 degrees magnetic

We need to determine what the Fixed card ADF pointer would read when intercepting the inbound track of 080.

Calculate the Relative Bearing:

MH + RB = BTS

RB = new BTS - new MH

RB = 080 - 125

RB = 315

NDB Time and Distance to the Station Formula(s):

Calculate Time to Station
Time to station (mins) = Time to change bearings (secs) / # of bearings

3 mins x 60 seconds = 180 seconds
Time to station (mins) = 180 secs/20 = 9 minutes

Calculate Distance to Station
Distance to station (NM) = [Time to station x TAS/60]
Distance to station (NM) = [9 minutes x 120/60]
Distance to station (NM) = 18 NM

To calculate the bearing from the station, you can follow these steps:

1. Calculate the Bearing To the Station (BTS): The formula is:
   MH (Magnetic Heading) + RB (Relative Bearing) = BTS
   In this case:
   180° (MH) + 220° (RB) = 400°
   Since a bearing cannot exceed 360°, subtract 360°:
   400° - 360° = 040° BTS
2. Calculate the Bearing From the Station (BFS):
   To get the bearing from the station, use the formula:
   BFS = BTS ± 180°
   040° + 180° = 220° BFS

So, the bearing from the station (BFS) is 220°, indicating that the aircraft is to the southwest of the station.

On a compass rose draw an NDB with 220 BFS. Then draw the 240 track from the station. You will see that we have to turn right.

To calculate the intercept heading, follow these steps:

1. Desired track:
   The desired track is 240° magnetic.
2. Intercept angle:
   You are using a 45-degree intercept angle to the right.
3. Calculate intercept heading:
   Add the intercept angle to the desired track to determine the intercept heading:
   240° + 45° = 285° magnetic.

So, the intercept heading is 285° magnetic. This is the heading you would fly to intercept the 240° outbound track, using a 45-degree intercept angle to the right.

We need to determine what the Fixed-card ADF pointer would read when intercepting the inbound track of 060 (with 240 outbound).

Calculate the Relative Bearing:
MH + RB = BTS
RB = new BTS - new MH
RB = 060 - 285
RB = 135 degrees

Reference: CAP GEN: IFR TAKEOFFS