IATRA Practice Exam 2

Payload = Zero Fuel Weight – Basic Operating Weight 

You have to calculate the SGR and SAR for each altitude and then choose the altitude with the most fuel per unit of fuel consumed.

Calculate the GS:

FL310 Groundspeed: 135 knots

FL350 groundspeed: 170 knots

Calculate the SGR and SAR:

Specific Air Range: TAS/Fuel Flow

Specific Ground Range: GS/Fuel Flow

Lets calculate it:

FL310 SGR: 135/1000 = 0.135 NM/lb

FL310 SAR: 120/1000 = 0.12 NM/lb

and…

FL350 SGR: 170/1000 = 0.170 NM/lb

FL350 SAR: 120/1000 = 0.12 NM/lb

Answer: A SGR of 0.135 NM/lb at FL310 will give you the best mileage per pound of fuel consumed.

On the exam choose the highest SGR. Even if you get a higher SAR, choose the highest SGR. Because, the SGR takes into account your groundspeed. This is a more realistic number to use.

Draw out the diagram to help you visualize the answer:

Calculate the wind component:

I used a CX-3 to figure out the wind component. With our track of 065 M and wind direction from 265 M. We will have a tailwind for the GS out and headwind for the GS in. The wind component is: 126 knots.

Distance to Critical Point

= (Total Distance x GS in)/ (GS out + GS in)

= (1125 x 74)/(326+74)

= 83250/400

= 208 NM

(Note: On the exam they will give you both a 3 Engine Speed and a 4 Engine Speed. Please ignore the 3 Engine Speed and only use the 4 Engine Speed for your calculations.)

Distance to CP from previous question: 208 NM and GS out: 326 knots

Time to CP = (Distance to CP/GS out) x 60

= (208 NM/326 knots) x 60

= 38  mins

Resource: Oxygen Requirements – TC AIM RAC 12, Use of Oxygen 605.32; CARs 602.34 Cruising Altitudes, AIM 2.3.1 Cruising Altitudes and Flight Levels

Description:

Question has two parts, initially we have to clarify maximum altitude we can fly without use of oxygen, and then find right answer using VFR Cruising altitudes.

605.32 (1) Where an aircraft is operated at cabin-pressure-altitudes above 10,000 feet ASL but not exceeding 13,000 feet ASL, each crew member shall wear an oxygen mask and use supplemental oxygen for any part of the flight at those altitudes that is more than 30 minutes in duration.

(2) Where an aircraft is operated at cabin-pressure-altitudes above 13,000 feet ASL, each person on board the aircraft shall wear an oxygen mask and use supplemental oxygen for the duration of the flight at those altitudes.

(3) The pilot at the flight controls of an aircraft shall use an oxygen mask if

(a) the aircraft is not equipped with quick-donning oxygen masks and is operated at or above flight level 250; or

(b) the aircraft is equipped with quick-donning oxygen masks and is operated above flight level 410.

Resource: CARS 705.106 ,

Description:

(1)Subject to subsection (3), no air operator shall permit a person to act and no person shall act as the pilot-in-command, second-in-command or cruise relief pilot of an aircraft unless the person

(a) holds the licence, ratings and endorsements required by Part IV;

(b) within the previous 90 days,

has completed at least three take-offs and three landings as the pilot at the controls and one sector assigned to duty as a flight crew member in an aircraft of that type,

has completed five sectors assigned to duty as a flight crew member in an aircraft of that type, or

has fulfilled the training requirements set out in the Commercial Air Service Standards;

(c) has successfully completed a pilot proficiency check, the validity period of which has not expired, for that type of aircraft, in accordance with the Commercial Air Service Standards;

(d) has successfully completed or is undergoing a line check or line indoctrination training, the validity period of which has not expired, for that type of aircraft, in accordance with the Commercial Air Service Standards; and

(e) has fulfilled the requirements of the air operator’s training program.

(2) A pilot who does not meet the requirements of subparagraph (1)(b)(i) or (ii) shall regain competency in accordance with the Commercial Air Service Standards.

(3) An air operator may permit a person to act and a person may act as the pilot-in-command or second-in-command of an aircraft where the person does not meet the requirements of subsection (1), if

(a) the aircraft is operated on a training, ferry or positioning flight; or

(b) the air operator

is authorized to do so in its air operator certificate, and

complies with the Commercial Air Service Standards.

(4) A pilot shall, on successful completion of a pilot proficiency check, meet the requirements of the consolidation period in accordance with the Commercial Air Service Standards.

Resource: CARS 602.63

Description:

(1) No person shall operate over water a single-engined aeroplane, or a multi-engined aeroplane that is UNABLE  to maintain flight with any engine failed, at more than 100 nautical miles, or the distance that can be covered in 30 minutes of flight at the cruising speed filed in the flight plan or flight itinerary, whichever distance is the lesser, from a suitable emergency landing site unless life rafts are carried on board and are sufficient in total rated capacity to accommodate all of the persons on board.

(2) Subject to subsection (3), no person shall operate over water a multi-engined aeroplane that is ABLE to maintain flight with any engine failed at more than 200 nautical miles, or the distance that can be covered in 60 minutes of flight at the cruising speed filed in the flight plan or flight itinerary, whichever distance is the lesser, from a suitable emergency landing site unless life rafts are carried on board and are sufficient in total rated capacity to accommodate all of the persons on board.

(3) A person may operate over water a transport category aircraft that is an aeroplane, at up to 400 nautical miles, or the distance that can be covered in 120 minutes of flight at the cruising speed filed in the flight plan or flight itinerary, whichever distance is the lesser, from a suitable emergency landing site without the life rafts referred to in subsection (2) being carried on board.

Resource: CARS 602.76, TC AIM 3.6.2 Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Flight Plan or Flight Itinerary

Description:

CAR 602.76(1) and (2) specify that a pilot shall notify as soon as practicable an air traffic control unit, a flight service station, a community aerodrome radio station or a responsible person, as the case may be, of any change to:

(a) the cruising altitude or cruising flight level; (b) the route of flight;

(c) the destination aerodrome;

(d) when in controlled airspace:

      (i) the true airspeed at the cruising altitude or cruising level where the change intended is 5% or more of the TAS specified in the IFR flight plan; or

      (ii) the Mach number, where the change intended is 0.01 or more of the Mach number that has been included in the ATC clearance. Where the flight is being conducted in controlled airspace, the pilot shall receive ATC clearance before making the intended change

Resource: CARS 602.37, TC AIM

Description:

602.37 Except where otherwise authorized by an air traffic control unit, each flight crew member who occupies a flight crew member position that is equipped with an altimeter shall

• (a) when flying from the altimeter-setting region into the standard pressure region, set the altimeter to 29.92 inches of mercury or 1,013.2 millibars immediately after the aircraft’s entry into the standard pressure region; and
• (b) when flying from the standard pressure region into the altimeter-setting region, set the altimeter to the altimeter setting of the nearest station along the route of flight or, where the nearest stations along the route of flight are separated by more than 150 nautical miles, the altimeter setting of a station near the route of flight immediately before the aircraft’s entry into the altimeter-setting region.

Resource: CARS 602.93

Description:

Every person who makes an entry in a technical record shall

(a) make the entry accurately, legibly and in a permanent manner;

(b) enter the person’s name and signature or employee identifier or, where the record is kept as electronic data, enter the person’s user code or an equivalent security designation; and

(c) date the entry.

(2) Where the owner of an aircraft keeps the technical records for the aircraft as electronic data, the owner shall ensure that the electronic data system that is used complies with section 103.04 and the Aircraft Equipment and Maintenance Standards.

(3) The owner of an aircraft shall ensure that all of the necessary measures are taken to protect the technical records for the aircraft from damage and loss.

(4) Every person who brings into use a new volume of an existing technical record shall make the entries relating to the preceding volume that are necessary to ensure that an unbroken chronological record is maintained

CAR 605.32

The pilot at the flight controls of an aircraft shall use an oxygen mask if

(a) the aircraft is not equipped with quick-donning oxygen masks and is operated at or above flight level 250; or

(b) the aircraft is equipped with quick-donning oxygen masks and is operated above flight level 410.

Resource: CARS 602.88

Description:

(1) This section does not apply in respect of any glider, balloon or ultra-light aeroplane.

(2) No pilot-in-command of an aircraft shall commence a flight or, during flight, change the destination aerodrome set out in the flight plan or flight itinerary, unless the aircraft carries sufficient fuel to ensure compliance with subsections (3) to (5).

(3) An aircraft operated in VFR flight shall carry an amount of fuel that is sufficient to allow the aircraft

(a) in the case of an aircraft other than a helicopter,

(i) when operated during the day, to fly to the destination aerodrome and then to fly for a period of 30 minutes at normal cruising speed, or

(ii) when operated at night, to fly to the destination aerodrome and then to fly for a period of 45 minutes at normal cruising speed; or

(b) in the case of a helicopter, to fly to the destination aerodrome and then to fly for a period of 20 minutes at normal cruising speed.

(4) An aircraft operated in IFR flight shall carry an amount of fuel that is sufficient to allow the aircraft

(a) in the case of a propeller-driven aeroplane,

(i) where an alternate aerodrome is specified in the flight plan or flight itinerary, to fly to and execute an approach and a missed approach at the destination aerodrome, to fly to and land at the alternate aerodrome and then to fly for a period of 45 minutes, or

(ii) where an alternate aerodrome is not specified in the flight plan or flight itinerary, to fly to and execute an approach and a missed approach at the destination aerodrome and then to fly for a period of 45 minutes; or

(b) in the case of a turbo-jet-powered aeroplane or a helicopter,

(i) where an alternate aerodrome is specified in the flight plan or flight itinerary, to fly to and execute an approach and a missed approach at the destination aerodrome, to fly to and land at the alternate aerodrome and then to fly for a period of 30 minutes, or

(ii) where an alternate aerodrome is not specified in the flight plan or flight itinerary, to fly to and execute an approach and a missed approach at the destination aerodrome and then to fly for a period of 30 minutes.

(5) Every aircraft shall carry an amount of fuel that is sufficient to provide for

(a) taxiing and foreseeable delays prior to take-off;

(b) meteorological conditions;

(c) foreseeable air traffic routings and traffic delays;

(d) landing at a suitable aerodrome in the event of loss of cabin pressurization or, in the case of a multi-engined aircraft, failure of any engine, at the most critical point during the flight; and

(e) any other foreseeable conditions that could delay the landing of the aircraft.

Resource: CARS 720.16

Description: 720

(5) Where the flight is conducted under Subpart 2 of the Canadian Aviation Regulations in aerial application operations, the maximum flight duty time may be extended for a split flight duty assignment provided that:

(a) the total flight duty time shall not exceed 14 hours in 24 consecutive hours;

(b) rest periods that allow a total of at least 9 hours opportunity to sleep in 24 consecutive hours shall be taken in suitable accommodation;

(c) one of these rest periods shall allow at least 5 consecutive hours opportunity to sleep between 20:00 and 06:00 local time; and

(d) the flight crew member shall receive at least 5 periods of 24 consecutive hours free from duty within each 30 consecutive days.

VFR Flight in Class C Airspace

601.08 (1) Subject to subsection (2), no person operating a VFR aircraft shall enter Class C airspace unless the person receives a clearance to enter from the appropriate air traffic control unit before entering the airspace.

(2) The pilot-in-command of a VFR aircraft that is not equipped with radiocommunication equipment capable of two-way communication with the appropriate air traffic control unit may, during daylight in VMC, enter Class C airspace if the pilot-in-command receives authorization to enter from the appropriate air traffic control unit before entering the airspace.

(3) Class C airspace becomes Class E airspace when the appropriate air traffic control unit is not in operation.

AIM RAC 2.8.3

Resource: CARS 605.27

Description:

Use of Crew Member Safety Belts

605.27 (1) Subject to subsection (2), the crew members on an aircraft shall be seated at their stations with their safety belts, including any shoulder harness, fastened

(a) during take-off and landing;

(b) at any time that the pilot-in-command directs; and

(c) in the case of crew members who are flight attendants, at any time that the in-charge flight attendant so directs pursuant to paragraph 605.25(4)(b).

(2) Where the pilot-in-command directs that safety belts be fastened by illuminating the safety belt sign, a crew member is not required to comply with paragraph (1)(b)

(a) during movement of the aircraft on the surface or during flight, if the crew member is performing duties relating to the safety of the aircraft or of the passengers on board;

(b) where the aircraft is experiencing light turbulence, if the crew member is a flight attendant and is performing duties relating to the passengers on board; or

(c) if the crew member is occupying a crew rest facility during cruise flight and the restraint system for that facility is properly adjusted and securely fastened.

(3) The pilot-in-command shall ensure that at least one pilot is seated at the flight controls with safety belt, including any shoulder harness, fastened during flight time.

Resource: TC AIM 2.12, CARS 602.124

Description:

An aircraft, when operated in accordance with IFR within designated mountainous regions, but outside of areas for which minimum altitudes for IFR operations have been established (including minimum vectoring altitudes, MOCAs, transition altitudes, 100NM safe altitudes, MSAs and AMAs), shall be flown at an altitude of at least 2000 feet above the highest obstacle within 5NM of the aircraft in flight when in areas 1 and 5, and at least 1500 feet above the highest obstacle within 5NM when in areas 2, 3 and 4. As minimum en-route IFR altitudes have been established for designated airways and air routes, such minimum altitudes shall be applied when flying in accordance with IFR along airways or air routes within designated mountainous regions, except that aircraft should be operated at an altitude which is at least 1000 feet higher than the minimum en-route IFR altitude, when there are large variations in temperature and/or pressure.

Aircraft operator means a person who uses, causes to be used, or authorizes to be used an aircraft, with or without the right of legal control (as owner, lessee, or otherwise), for the purpose of air navigation including the piloting of aircraft, or on any part of the surface of an airport. In specific parts or sections of this subchapter, “aircraft operator” is used to refer to specific types of operators as described in those parts or sections.

Airport operator means a person that operates an airport serving an aircraft operator or a foreign air carrier required to have a security program.

Resource: CARS 602.88

Description:

(1) This section does not apply in respect of any glider, balloon or ultra-light aeroplane.

(2) No pilot-in-command of an aircraft shall commence a flight or, during flight, change the destination aerodrome set out in the flight plan or flight itinerary, unless the aircraft carries sufficient fuel to ensure compliance with subsections (3) to (5).

(3) An aircraft operated in VFR flight shall carry an amount of fuel that is sufficient to allow the aircraft

(a) in the case of an aircraft other than a helicopter,

(i) when operated during the day, to fly to the destination aerodrome and then to fly for a period of 30 minutes at normal cruising speed, or

(ii) when operated at night, to fly to the destination aerodrome and then to fly for a period of 45 minutes at normal cruising speed; or

(b) in the case of a helicopter, to fly to the destination aerodrome and then to fly for a period of 20 minutes at normal cruising speed.

(4) An aircraft operated in IFR flight shall carry an amount of fuel that is sufficient to allow the aircraft

(a) in the case of a propeller-driven aeroplane,

(i) where an alternate aerodrome is specified in the flight plan or flight itinerary, to fly to and execute an approach and a missed approach at the destination aerodrome, to fly to and land at the alternate aerodrome and then to fly for a period of 45 minutes, or

(ii) where an alternate aerodrome is not specified in the flight plan or flight itinerary, to fly to and execute an approach and a missed approach at the destination aerodrome and then to fly for a period of 45 minutes; or

(b) in the case of a turbo-jet-powered aeroplane or a helicopter,

(i) where an alternate aerodrome is specified in the flight plan or flight itinerary, to fly to and execute an approach and a missed approach at the destination aerodrome, to fly to and land at the alternate aerodrome and then to fly for a period of 30 minutes, or

(ii) where an alternate aerodrome is not specified in the flight plan or flight itinerary, to fly to and execute an approach and a missed approach at the destination aerodrome and then to fly for a period of 30 minutes.

(5) Every aircraft shall carry an amount of fuel that is sufficient to provide for

(a) taxiing and foreseeable delays prior to take-off;

(b) meteorological conditions;

(c) foreseeable air traffic routings and traffic delays;

(d) landing at a suitable aerodrome in the event of loss of cabin pressurization or, in the case of a multi-engined aircraft, failure of any engine, at the most critical point during the flight; and

(e) any other foreseeable conditions that could delay the landing of the aircraft.

Resource: AIM 4.4.8

4.4.8 Communications Failure – Visual Flight Rules (VFR) (a) CAR 602.138 specifies that where there is a two-way radio communication failure between the controlling air traffic control unit and a VFR aircraft while operating in Class B, Class C or Class D airspace, the pilot-in-command shall:

(i) leave the airspace

(A) where the airspace is a control zone, by landing at the aerodrome for which the control zone is established, and

(B) in any other case, by the shortest route;

(ii) where the aircraft is equipped with a transponder, set the transponder to Code 7600; and

(iii) inform an air traffic control unit as soon as possible of the actions taken pursuant to (i).

(b) Should the communications failure occur while operating outside of Class B, C, or D airspace precluding the pilot from obtaining the appropriate clearance to enter or establishing radio contact, and if no nearby suitable aerodrome is available, the pilot may enter the Class B, C or D airspace, continue under VFR, and shall carry out the remaining procedures listed in (a). (c) Should the communications failure occur and there is a suitable aerodrome nearby at which the pilot wishes to land, it is recommended that the pilot comply with the established NORDO arrival procedure outlined in RAC 4.4.5

Source: CAR 401.05, TC AIM 1.12 Recency Requirements

Description:

In addition to a valid medical certificate, flight crew must meet the Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs) requirements for recency in order to exercise the privileges of their permit, licence or rating in accordance with CAR 401.05 and CAR 421.05. The recency requirements address three time periods: five years, two years, and six months. If a pilot wishes to act as pilot-in-command (PIC) or co-pilot of an aircraft, they must meet both the five-year and the two-year recency requirements. If they wish to carry passengers, they must also meet the six-month requirement. For five-year recency, the pilot must have either:

(a) flown as pilot-in-command (PIC) or co-pilot within the previous five years; or

(b) completed a flight review with an instructor and written and passed the Student Pilot Permit or Private Pilot License for Foreign and Military Applicants, Aviation Regulation Examination, commonly known as PSTAR, within the previous 12 months.

For the 24-month recurrent training program, the pilot must have successfully completed a recurrent training program within the previous 24 months, and therefore meet one of the following seven conditions:

(a) complete a flight review with an instructor;

(b) attend a safety seminar conducted by Transport Canada Civil Aviation (TCCA);

(c) participate in a TCCA-approved recurrent training program;

(d) complete a self-paced study program;

(e) complete a training program or pilot proficiency check (PPC) as required by CARs Part IV, VI or VII;

(f) complete the requirements for the issue or renewal of a licence, permit or rating; or

(g) complete the written exam for a licence, permit or rating. Flight crew must also meet specific recency requirements for other aircraft categories, instrument ratings and passenger carrying operations. Refer to CAR 401.05 and CAR 421.05 for more information

Carrying Passengers

(b) where a passenger other than a flight test examiner designated by the Minister is carried on board the aircraft, has completed, within the six months preceding the flight,

(i) in the case of an aircraft other than a glider or a balloon, in the same category and class of aircraft as the aircraft, or in a Level B, C or D simulator of the same category and class as the aircraft, at least

(A) five night or day take-offs and five night or day landings, if the flight is conducted wholly by day, or

(B) five night take-offs and five night landings, if the flight is conducted wholly or partly by night

Source: CAR 401.05, TC AIM 1.12 Recency Requirments

Description:

(1) No person shall operate over water a single-engined aeroplane, or a multi-engined aeroplane that is unable to maintain flight with any engine failed, at more than 100 nautical miles, or the distance that can be covered in 30 minutes of flight at the cruising speed filed in the flight plan or flight itinerary, whichever distance is the lesser, from a suitable emergency landing site unless life rafts are carried on board and are sufficient in total rated capacity to accommodate all of the persons on board.

(2) Subject to subsection (3), no person shall operate over water a multi-engined aeroplane that is able to maintain flight with any engine failed at more than 200 nautical miles, or the distance that can be covered in 60 minutes of flight at the cruising speed filed in the flight plan or flight itinerary, whichever distance is the lesser, from a suitable emergency landing site unless life rafts are carried on board and are sufficient in total rated capacity to accommodate all of the persons on board.

(3) A person may operate over water a transport category aircraft that is an aeroplane, at up to 400 nautical miles, or the distance that can be covered in 120 minutes of flight at the cruising speed filed in the flight plan or flight itinerary, whichever distance is the lesser, from a suitable emergency landing site without the life rafts referred to in subsection (2) being carried on board.

(4) No person shall operate over water a single-engined helicopter, or a multi-engined helicopter that is unable to maintain flight with any engine failed, at more than 25 nautical miles, or the distance that can be covered in 15 minutes of flight at the cruising speed filed in the flight plan or flight itinerary, whichever distance is the lesser, from a suitable emergency landing site unless life rafts are carried on board and are sufficient in total rated capacity to accommodate all of the persons on board.

(5) No person shall operate over water a multi-engined helicopter that is able to maintain flight with any engine failed at more than 50 nautical miles, or the distance that can be covered in 30 minutes of flight at the cruising speed filed in the flight plan or flight itinerary, whichever distance is the lesser, from a suitable emergency landing site unless life rafts are carried on board and are sufficient in total rated capacity to accommodate all of the persons on board.

Source: Human Factors For Aviation TP12863E Chapter 5 ; Advisory Circular Transport Canada Civil Aviaition Standards – Crew Resource Management 2.3

Description:

Crew Resource Management (CRM): is the effective utilization of all resources including crew members, aircraft systems, supporting facilities and persons to achieve safe and efficient operations. The objective of CRM is to enhance communication, interaction, human factors and management skills of the crew members concerned. Emphasis is also on the non-technical aspects of crew performance.

Contemporary Crew Resource Management: Contemporary CRM integrates technical skill development with communications and crew coordination training and operational risk management by applying threat and error management (TEM) concepts

Source: TC AIM 2.16.1 Controlled Flight Into Terrain

Description:

Controlled Flights Into Terrain (CFIT) continue to be a major threat to civil aviation safety in Canada. A stabilized final approach during an NPA has been recognized by the ICAO CFIT Task Force as an aid to prevent CFIT. The step-down technique presumed by NPA procedure design may have been appropriate for early piston transport aircraft, but it is less suited to larger jet transport aircraft. When using the step-down technique, the aircraft flies a series of vertical descents during the final approach segment as it descends and levels off at the minimum IFR altitudes published for each segment of the approach. The successive descents and level-offs result in significant changes in power settings and pitch attitudes and for some aircraft, may prevent the landing configuration from being established until landing is assured. Using the step-down technique, the aircraft may have to be flown at minimum IFR altitudes for each segment of the approach and consequently be exposed to reduced obstacle separation for extended periods of time. A premature descent or a missed level-off could render the aircraft vulnerable to a CFIT accident. Many air operators require their flight crews to use a stabilized approach technique which is entirely different from that envisaged in the original NPA procedure design. The stabilized approach is calculated to achieve a constant rate of descent at an approximate 3° flight path angle with stable airspeed, power setting, and attitude, and also with the aircraft configured for landing. The safety benefits derived from the stabilized final approach have been recognized by many organizations including ICAO, the FAA and TCCA. Those air operators not already doing so are encouraged to incorporate stabilized approach procedures into their SOPs and training syllabi.

CAUTION: Caution should be exercised when descending below the MDA while following an FMS-generated vertical path. Unlike vertically guided approaches, which have their OCSs verified below the DA, OCSs on LNAV procedures below the MDA have NOT been assessed. As a result, obstacles may penetrate the computer generated flight path. Pilots are reminded to visually scan for obstacles before descending below the MDA. VASI and PAPI are calibrated for a defined geometric vertical path angle. In cold temperatures, a non-temperature compensated barometric FMS-generated vertical path may be lower than that of a calibrated VASI or PAPI. In high temperatures, a barometric FMS-generated vertical path will be higher than that of a calibrated VASI or PAPI. Pilots should be aware of this limitation and operate accordingly.

AIM 1.7 V – speeds

Description:

V2 is the takeoff safety speed, at which the aircraft may safely be climbed with one engine inoperative. The aircraft must be able to attain in order to leave the runway and get 35 feet off the ground at the end of the runway, at 200 ft/min climb gradient.

Source: From Ground Up  Weight and Balance – Weight

Description:

Payload – The load available as passengers, baggage, freight etc., after weight of the pilot, crew, usable fuel have been deducted from useful load.

Basic Operational Weight (Operational Empty Weight) – The basic empty weight of the aircraft plus weight of pilot and crew.

Simply saying Payload it is load that company or operator is getting revenue for, do not mix it with Useful Load.

Source: AIM 2.8 Low-level wind shear/ Royal Canadian Airforce Weather Manual

Description:

Increasing Performance Wind Shear On approach, the aircraft will pass from a light tailwind associated with the inflow through an increased performance shear as it encounters the outflow of the downdraft. This will cause an increase in airspeed and an increase in lift so the aircraft will tend to rise above the glide slope. To counteract this, thrust will have to be reduced and the nose of the aircraft lowered. The aircraft now enters the downdraft and then a decreased performance shear This will cause a serious drop in airspeed and a marked increase in the rate of descend so that the aircraft will tend to sink below the glide slope. This is the danger area. The aircraft is now low and slow. Thrust must be increased quickly and the nose lifted to regain the glide slope. Increased performance shear will next be encountered as the aircraft passes through the gust front and encounters a headwind. The aircraft will then become high and fast and corrections may have to be made to prevent overshooting.

The best defense against wind shear is to avoid it altogether because it could be beyond your capabilities or those of your aircraft. However, if you do recognize WS, prompt action is required. In all aircraft, the recovery could require full power and a pitch attitude consistent with the maximum angle of attack for your aircraft. Aircraft equipped with wind shear detection and warning systems may be provided with guidance to escape WS or, in the case of Predictive Wind Shear Systems (PWSs), to avoid it (see MET 2.3). For more information on WS, consult the Air Command Weather Manual (TP 9352E). If you experience WS, advise air traffic services (ATS) (see RAC 6.1) and warn others, as soon as possible, by sending a PIREP to the ground facility.

 %MAC = ((CG – LEMAC)/MAC) x 100

Source: From Ground Up 3.8.4 Prop Reversing:

Description:

Hydromechanical Low Stops prevent inadvertent movement of the throttle levers into beta range during the flight.

Source: AIM 2.9 Wake Turbulence

Description:

The greatest vortex strength occurs when the generating aircraft is HEAVY, CLEAN, and SLOW.

Vortex Strength The strength of these vortices is governed by the shape of the wings, and the weight and speed of the aircraft; the most significant factor is weight. The greatest vortex strength occurs under conditions of heavy weight, clean configuration, and slow speed. The strength of the vortex shows little dissipation at altitude within 2 min of the time of initial formation. Beyond 2 min, varying degrees of dissipation occur along the vortex path; first in one vortex and then in the other. The break-up of vortices is affected by atmospheric turbulence, the greater the turbulence, the more rapid the dissipation of the vortices.

Think of wingtip vortices as a product of drag and lift, just imagine when airplane needs to create as much lift as possible in order to stay in the air.

Description:

Hung Start: A hung start occurs when the engine lights off normally but doesn’t accelerate to idle RPM.

Source: Royal Canadian Airforce Weather Manual 12-22 h); j);

Description:

If jet stream turbulence is encountered with direct tailwinds or headwinds, a change in flight level or course should be initiated since these turbulent areas are elongated with the wind, and are shallow and narrow. A turn towards the warm air side of the jet will place the aircraft in more favourable winds. If a turn is not feasible due to airway restrictions, a climb or descent to the next flight level will usually find smoother air.

If jet stream turbulence is encountered in a crosswind, it is not so important to change course or flight level since the rough areas are narrow across the minute or two. If temperature is rising – climb. If temperature is falling descend. If temperature is constant – Climb Or Descend

Application of these rules will prevent following the sloping tropopause or frontal surface and thus staying in the turbulent area.

Description:

 Modern weather radars are doppler radars, capable of detecting the motion of rain droplets in addition to intensity of the precipitation.

The radar antenna is located in the nose of the aircraft.

Droplet size is a good indicator of strong updrafts within cumulonimbus clouds, and associated turbulence, and is indicated on the screen by patterns, colour coded for intensity.

Source: TC AIM 4.11 Clouds and Weather Chart (g)

Description:

Surface winds—The speed and direction of forecast surface winds with a sustained speed of at least 20 kt are indicated by wind barbs and an associated wind-speed value. When accompanied by strong gusts, mean sustained winds of less than 20 kt may also be included, at the forecaster’s discretion, if moderate mechanical turbulence is expected to occur as a result of the wind gusts. Wind gusts are indicated by the letter “G,” followed by the peak gust speed in knots.

Source: TC AIM 2.10 CAT

Description:

On charts for standard isobaric surfaces such as the 250 mbs charts, 30 kt isotachs spaced closer than 90 NM indicate sufficient horizontal shear for CAT. This area is normally on the north (low-pressure) side of the jet stream axis, but in unusual cases may occur on the south side.

AIM AIR 2.12.3.1

For any ice to form the OAT must be at or below freezing with the presence of visible moisture.

Rime ice commonly found in stratiform clouds, low catch rate is granular, opaque and pebbly and adheres to the leading edges of antennas and windshields. Rime ice forms in low temperatures with a low concentration of small super-cooled droplets. It has little tendency to spread and can easily be removed by aircraft de-icing systems. Between 0 to -20C.

Clear ice commonly found in cumuliform clouds is glassy, smooth and hard, and tends to spread back from the area of impingement. Clear ice forms at temperatures at or just below 0°C to -10C with a high concentration of large super-cooled droplets. It is the most serious form of icing because it adheres firmly and is difficult to remove.

Frost may form on an aircraft in flight when descent is made from below-freezing conditions to a layer of warm, moist air. In these circumstances, vision may be restricted as frost forms on the windshield or canopy.

850 mb (5000)

700 mb (10,000)

500 mb (18,000)

250 mb (34,000)

Description:

Specific Air Range SAR –  Fuel flow divided by the aircraft TAS. ·

Specific Ground Range SGR – Fuel flow divided by the aircraft Ground Speed.

AIM COM 4.7 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) 

The DME slant range error is the greatest when the airplane is at a high altitude close to or over the ground station. Moreover, slant range error also affects groundspeed and time-to-staion displays when you are close to the station.

AIM COM 4.8 TACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION (TACAN)

Tactical air navigation aid (TACAN) is a navigation aid (NAVAID) used primarily by the military for en route, non-precision approaches (NPAs) and other military applications. It provides azimuth in the form of radials and slant distance in nautical miles (NM) from the ground station. The system operates in the ultrahigh frequency (UHF) range with the frequencies identified by channel number.

TACAN users may obtain distance information from a distance measuring equipment (DME)  that is paired with the VHF omnidirectional range (VOR). This TACAN paired channel number is published in the Canada Flight Supplement (CFS) for every VOR/DME facility.

CAUTION:
Only DME information is being received by the TACAN avionics. Any apparent radial information obtained through the TACAN avionics from a VOR/DME facility can only be false signals.

AIM COM 4.7 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) 

The DME slant range error is the greatest when the airplane is at a high altitude close to or over the ground station. Moreover, slant range error also affects groundspeed and time-to-staion displays when you are close to the station.

AIM COM 4.8 TACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION (TACAN)

Tactical air navigation aid (TACAN) is a navigation aid (NAVAID) used primarily by the military for en route, non-precision approaches (NPAs) and other military applications. It provides azimuth in the form of radials and slant distance in nautical miles (NM) from the ground station. The system operates in the ultrahigh frequency (UHF) range with the frequencies identified by channel number.

TACAN users may obtain distance information from a distance measuring equipment (DME)  that is paired with the VHF omnidirectional range (VOR). This TACAN paired channel number is published in the Canada Flight Supplement (CFS) for every VOR/DME facility.

CAUTION:
Only DME information is being received by the TACAN avionics. Any apparent radial information obtained through the TACAN avionics from a VOR/DME facility can only be false signals.

Source: TC AIM 5.4.2 ; Annex I: Navigation Databases (NavDB) www.canada.ca

Description:

All approaches must be retrieved from the avionics database, and that database must be current. While it is sometimes acceptable to use pilot-generated waypoints en route, this is not permitted for approach procedures

Database Requirement. The avionics database must be current. The RNAV system must include a manufacturer supplied electronic database that can be updated, normally on 28- or 56-day cycles. The updating service is usually purchased under subscription from the avionics manufacturers or database suppliers.

As database errors do occur, crews must verify that the retrieved data is correct. Prior to using the database for primary navigation, crews must verify the integrity of their database.

Additional verification should be accomplished by comparing waypoint co-ordinates found in the navigation database with a WGS-84 based chart. Crews can also check bearings and distances between waypoints found in the FMS against enroute charts. Any discrepancies shall be reported to the avionics database supplier.’

VOR Reception Range = 1.23  x √(square root) Height of the aircraft AGL