CPL Practice Exam 1

AIM RAC 2.2.1 Northern Domestic Airspace (NDA)

PITOT TUBE BLOCKAGE

A pitot tube blockage can be caused by dirt, moisture, ice or even bugs. And, of course, aborted takeoffs after a failure to note “airspeed alive” on the takeoff roll, only to later find the pitot-tube cover still on, almost mockingly. Assuming a proper preflight inspection, ensuring the pitot tube is free and clear, obstructions can still unfortunately occur during flight. There are a few possible scenarios.

Blocked pitot tube with unblocked drain hole: This would result in the airspeed indicator reading zero. Because the pitot tube would not be able to sense any airflow, and the drain hole would let any residual air out, there would be no pressure differential for the airspeed indicator to measure.

Blocked pitot tube with blocked drain hole: With trapped dynamic pressure, the airspeed will indicate whatever speed was showing when the blockages occurred. If the aircraft’s static port remains unblocked, pressure will increase as the aircraft descends and decrease as the aircraft climbs.

If static pressure decreases during a climb, the trapped ambient pressure with allow the diaphragm to expand, showing an increase in airspeed. Conversely, descending into denser air will force the diaphragm to close, showing a decrease in airspeed. In short, the airspeed will act in a manner similar to an altimeter.

STATIC PORT BLOCKAGE

Blockages of the static port will affect all pitot/static instruments.

Airspeed Indicator: If the static port is blocked but the pitot tube remains clear, the ASI will function but not with accuracy. If speed remains constant, and the aircraft climbs or descends, the static pressure will result in changes to your airspeed indication. It’s the same principle as a blocked pitot tube but reversed.

A climb will result in a decrease in atmospheric pressure entering the pitot tube, which will result in the ASI indicating decreasing airspeed, causing the ASI to act as a “reverse altimeter.” As long as the pitot tube is not blocked, changes in airspeed will reflect on the ASI, but not accurately.

Vertical Speed Indicator: With no changes to static air, there can be no differential pressure for the VSI to work with. With no differential pressure, the VSI will be stuck at zero, and you’ll marvel at how well you’re maintaining altitude.

Altimeter: The altimeter will freeze at whatever altitude was indicated when the static port was blocked.

The question does not mention a blocked static line. Instead it says a disconnected static line within a pressurized airplane.

Static Pressure Function:

The static pressure line measures the atmospheric pressure outside the aircraft. This measurement is crucial for the altimeter (which shows altitude) and the airspeed indicator (which calculates speed based on changes in pressure).

If the static line is disconnected, the instruments no longer receive accurate external pressure information. Instead, they may read the internal pressure of the cabin, which is generally higher than the outside atmospheric pressure at cruising altitude.

Altimeter:

The altimeter will not be able to adjust to the lower outside pressure as altitude increases. As a result, it will read lower than the actual altitude.

Airspeed indicator:

The airspeed indicator measures the speed of an aircraft relative to the surrounding air, using the differential between the pressure of still air (static pressure) and that of moving air compressed by the aircraft’s forward motion (ram pressure).

As the speed increases, the difference between these pressures increases as well.

If the pressure difference was low (due to a static port line disconnecting within a pressurized cabin), then the airspeed will indicate low as well.

Why Do You Adjust Mixture?

Carburetors are normally calibrated at sea-level pressure, where the correct fuel/air ratio is set with the mixture control at or near the “full rich” position. As altitude increases, the density of the air entering the carburetor decreases. If you don’t change the amount of fuel entering the carburetor, your mixture will slowly become too rich.

This creates a problem. The mixture will become progressively richer as altitude increases, resulting in engine roughness and a reduction of power output. Rich mixtures slow the speed that the fuel/air mixture burns in the cylinder, which means less power output. Running with an overly rich mixture for extended periods can also lead to spark plug fouling, which creates a weaker spark in the combustion chamber, further reducing your power output.

To maintain a proper fuel/air ratio, lean the mixture. Leaning decreases fuel flow, compensating for the less dense high-altitude air.

A lean mixture is used to compensate for the reduced air density at high altitudes and improves fuel economy. Leaning means to reduce the amount of fuel being mixed with the air.

AIM COM 4.7 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) 

The DME slant range error is the greatest when the airplane is at a high altitude close to or over the ground station. Moreover, slant range error also affects groundspeed and time-to-staion displays when you are close to the station.

AIM COM 4.7 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) 

The DME slant range error is the greatest when the airplane is at a high altitude close to or over the ground station. Moreover, slant range error also affects groundspeed and time-to-staion displays when you are close to the station.

CARs 605.32 Use of Oxygen

(1) Where an aircraft is operated at cabin-pressure-altitudes above 10,000 feet ASL but not exceeding 13,000 feet ASL, each crew member shall wear an oxygen mask and use supplemental oxygen for any part of the flight at those altitudes that is more than 30 minutes in duration.

(2) Where an aircraft is operated at cabin-pressure-altitudes above 13,000 feet ASL, each person on board the aircraft shall wear an oxygen mask and use supplemental oxygen for the duration of the flight at those altitudes.

(3) The pilot at the flight controls of an aircraft shall use an oxygen mask if

(a) the aircraft is not equipped with quick-donning oxygen masks and is operated at or above flight level 250; or

(b) the aircraft is equipped with quick-donning oxygen masks and is operated above flight level 410.

CAR 704.42 Night and IMC Flights

702.42 (1) No person shall operate an aircraft at night unless the aircraft is equipped with

(a) at least one landing light; and

(b) if the aircraft is operated in icing conditions, a means of illumination or other means to detect the formation of ice.

(2) No person shall operate a multi-engined aircraft in IMC unless the aircraft is equipped with

(a) two generators or two alternators, each of which is driven by a separate engine or by a rotor drive train; and

(b) two independent sources of energy, at least one of which is not a battery, and each of which is able to drive all flight instruments requiring a source of energy and is installed so that the failure of one instrument or one source of energy will affect neither the energy supply to the remaining instruments nor the other source of energy.

VFR Over-the-Top

602.116 Despite paragraphs 602.114(a) and 602.115(a), an aircraft may be operated in VFR OTT flight during the cruise portion of the flight during the day if

(a) the aircraft is operated at a vertical distance from cloud of at least 1,000 feet;

(b) where the aircraft is operated between 2 cloud layers, the vertical distance between the layers is at least 5,000 feet;

(c) flight visibility at the cruising altitude of the aircraft is at least 5 miles; and

(d) the weather at the aerodrome of destination is forecast to have no broken, overcast or obscured layer lower than 3,000 feet above the planned flight altitude and the ground visibility is forecast to be five miles or greater with no thunderstorms or precipitation

(i) where the forecast is an aerodrome forecast (TAF), for the period from 1 hour before to 2 hours after the estimated time of arrival, using the worst forecast condition together with any of the references TEMPO (temporary fluctuation), BECMG (becoming) or PROB (probability), and

(ii) where an aerodrome forecast (TAF) is not available and the forecast is an area forecast (FA), for the period from 1 hour before to 3 hours after the estimated time of arrival.

Definitions:

day or daylight means the time between the beginning of morning civil twilight and the end of evening civil twilight; (jour)

night means the time between the end of evening civil twilight and the beginning of morning civil twilight; (nuit)

723.33 VFR OTT (Over the Top) Flight

The following standard shall be complied with for flights operating VFR OTT:

(1) the flight shall be conducted in accordance with the requirements of Section 602.116 of the Canadian Aviation Regulations;

(2) for multi-engined aeroplanes where the pilot holds a valid Instrument Rating for the group of aeroplane, the flight shall be operated under conditions allowing descent under VMC or continuation of the flight under IFR or VMC if its critical engine fails;

(3) for multi-engined aeroplanes where the pilot does not hold a valid Instrument Rating for the group of aeroplane, or that can not comply with (2) above, and for single-engine aeroplanes, the flight shall be operated under conditions allowing:

(a) for multi-engined aeroplanes, descent under VMC, or continuation of the flight under VMC conditions if its critical engine fails;

(b) for single-engined aeroplanes, descent under VMC if its engine fails.

Transport of Passengers in Single-engined Aircraft

703.22 (1) Subject to subsection (2), no air operator shall operate a single-engined aircraft with passengers on board in IFR flight or in night VFR flight.

(2) An air operator may operate a single-engined aircraft with passengers on board in IFR flight or in night VFR flight if the air operator

(a) is authorized to do so in its air operator certificate; and

(b) complies with the Commercial Air Service Standards.

Maximum Flight Time

700.27 (1) An air operator shall not assign flight time to a flight crew member, and a flight crew member shall not accept such an assignment, if the member’s total flight time will, as a result, exceed

(a) 112 hours in any 28 consecutive days;

(b) 300 hours in any 90 consecutive days;

(c) 1,000 hours in any 365 consecutive days; or

(d) in the case of a single-pilot operation, 8 hours in any 24 consecutive hours.

(2) For the purpose of subsection (1), a flight crew member’s flight time includes

(a) the flight time accumulated from other flight operations; and

(b) the total flight time of a flight with an augmented flight crew.

CAR 604.98 

(1) No private operator shall assign flight time to a flight crew member, and no flight crew member shall accept such an assignment, if the flight crew member’s total flight time in all flights conducted under this Subpart, Part IV or Part VII would, as a result, exceed

(a) 1,200 hours in a period of 12 consecutive months;

(b) 300 hours in a period of 90 consecutive days;

(c) 120 hours in a period of 30 consecutive days; or

(d) 8 hours in a period of 24 consecutive hours, if the assignment is for a single-pilot IFR flight.

Night and IMC Flights

702.42 (1) No person shall operate an aircraft at night unless the aircraft is equipped with

(a) at least one landing light; and

(b) if the aircraft is operated in icing conditions, a means of illumination or other means to detect the formation of ice.

(2) No person shall operate a multi-engined aircraft in IMC unless the aircraft is equipped with

(a) two generators or two alternators, each of which is driven by a separate engine or by a rotor drive train; and

(b) two independent sources of energy, at least one of which is not a battery, and each of which is able to drive all flight instruments requiring a source of energy and is installed so that the failure of one instrument or one source of energy will affect neither the energy supply to the remaining instruments nor the other source of energy.

Additional Equipment for Single-pilot Operations

702.43 No air operator shall operate an aircraft on a single-pilot operation in IFR flight unless the aircraft is equipped with

(a) an auto-pilot that is capable of operating the aircraft controls to maintain flight and manoeuvre the aircraft about the lateral and longitudinal axes;

(b) a headset with a boom microphone or equivalent and a transmit button on the control column; and

(c) a chart holder that is equipped with a light and that is placed in an easily readable position.

The max flight time and duty times are different for Commercial Operators vs Medevac

Commercial Operator General Maximum Flight Time

700.27 (1) An air operator shall not assign flight time to a flight crew member, and a flight crew member shall not accept such an assignment, if the member’s total flight time will, as a result, exceed

(a) 112 hours in any 28 consecutive days;

(b) 300 hours in any 90 consecutive days;

(c) 1,000 hours in any 365 consecutive days; or

(d) in the case of a single-pilot operation, 8 hours in any 24 consecutive hours.

(2) For the purpose of subsection (1), a flight crew member’s flight time includes

(a) the flight time accumulated from other flight operations; and

(b) the total flight time of a flight with an augmented flight crew.

Commercial Operator General Maximum Flight Duty Period

700.28 (1) An air operator shall not assign a flight duty period to a flight crew member, and a flight crew member shall not accept such an assignment, if the flight duty period exceeds the maximum flight duty period set out in this section.

(2) If the average duration of all scheduled flights is less than 30 minutes, the maximum period of a flight duty period that begins during a period set out in column 1 of the table to this subsection is the number of hours set out in column 2, 3 or 4, according to the number of flights scheduled during the flight duty period.

(4) If the average duration of all scheduled flights is 50 minutes or more, the maximum period of a flight duty period that begins during a period set out in column 1 of the table to this subsection shall not exceed the number of hours set out in column 2, 3 or 4, according to the number of flights scheduled during the flight duty period.

Medical Evacuation Medevac Maximum Flight Time

700.103 (1) An air operator shall not assign a flight crew member for flight time, and a flight crew member shall not accept such an assignment, if the member’s total flight time will, as a result, exceed

(a) if the flight is conducted under Subpart 4 or 5 using an aircraft other than a helicopter, 40 hours in any 7 consecutive days;

(b) if the flight is conducted under Subpart 3, or is conducted using a helicopter, 60 hours in any 7 consecutive days;

(c) 120 hours in any 30 consecutive days or, in the case of a flight crew member on call, 100 hours in any 30 consecutive days;

(d) 300 hours in any 90 consecutive days;

(e) 1,200 hours in any 365 consecutive days; or

(f) in the case of a single-pilot operation, 8 hours in any 24 consecutive hours.

(2) For the purpose of subsection (1), a flight crew member’s flight time includes

(a) the flight time accumulated from other flight operations; and

(b) the total flight time of a flight with an augmented flight crew.

Medical Evacuation Medevac Maximum Flight Duty Period

700.104 An air operator shall not assign a flight duty period to a flight crew member, and a flight crew member shall not accept such an assignment, if the flight duty period exceeds 14 hours.

Medical Evacuation Medevac Rest Period — General

700.116 (1) An air operator shall provide a flight crew member, at the end of a flight duty period, with a rest period of 10 hours plus the travel time to and from the place where the rest period is taken.

(2) An air operator shall provide a flight crew member with advance notice of the member’s rest period and its duration.

703.86 Minimum Crew

No air operator shall operate an aircraft with passengers on board in IFR flight with fewer than two pilots unless the air operator

(a) is authorized to do so in its air operator certificate; and

(b) complies with the Commercial Air Service Standards.

723.86 Minimum Crew Single Pilot IFR Requirements

The standard for the operation of an aeroplane with passengers on board in IFR flight without a second-in-command is:

(1) the pilot shall have a minimum of 1000 hours of flight time which shall include, if the type to be flown is multi-engined, 100 hours on multi-engined aeroplanes. In addition, the pilot shall have 50 hours of simulated or actual flight in IMC, and a total of 50 hours flight time on the aeroplane type;

(2) the Pilot Proficiency Check shall be in the aeroplane type flown or if applicable in one of the types grouped for Pilot Proficiency Check renewals and shall include the following:

(a) knowledge of the auto-pilot operations and limitations;

(b) performance of normal and emergency procedures without assistance;

(c) passenger briefing with respect to emergency evacuation; and

(d) demonstration of the use of the auto-pilot during appropriate phases of flight;

(3) flight in pressurized aeroplanes shall be conducted at or below FL 250; and

(4) a pilot’s single pilot proficiency, if still valid, is transferable between air operators which have an Air Operator Certificate authority to conduct such operations and utilize the same type and model of aeroplane.

CAR 605.31 Oxygen Equipment and Supply

(1) No person shall operate an unpressurized aircraft unless it is equipped with sufficient oxygen dispensing units and oxygen supply for:

All crew members and 10% of passengers and, in any case, no less than 1 passenger. For the entire period of flight exceeding 30 minutes at cabin-pressure-altitudes above 10,000 feet ASL but not exceeding 13,000 feet ASL.

All persons on board the aircraft for:

(a) the Entire period of flight at-cabin-pressure altitudes above 13,000 feet ASL

(b) an aircraft operated in an air transport service under the conditions referred to in paragraph (a), a period of flight of not less than one hour

Keiths Note: In this example, the total time above 10,000 ft is 38 mins. Take 38- 30 min regulation without oxygen = 8 mins with oxygen

AIP Canada Enroute 1.7

Cold dry air masses can produce barometric pressures in excess of 31.00 inches of mercury. Because barometric readings of 31.00 inches of mercury or higher rarely occur, most standard altimeters do not permit the setting of barometric pressures above that level and are not calibrated to indicate accurate aircraft altitude above 31.00 inches of mercury.

As a result, most altimeters cannot be set to provide accurate altitude readouts to the pilot in these situations. ATC will issue actual altimeter settings and will confirm with the pilot that 31.00 inches of mercury is set on the pilot’s altimeters for enroute operations below 18 000 feet ASL in the affected areas.

Aerodromes that are unable to accurately measure barometric pressures above 31.00 inches of mercury will report the barometric pressure as “in excess of 31.00 inches of mercury”. Flight operations to and from those aerodromes are restricted to VFR weather conditions.

When the barometric pressure exceeds 31.00 inches of mercury, the following procedures take effect: Altimeters of all IFR, controlled VFR flight (CVFR) and VFR aircraft are to be set to 31.00 inches of mercury for enroute operations below 18,000 feet ASL.

All pilots are to maintain this setting until beyond the area affected by the extreme high pressure or until reaching the final approach segment of an instrument approach for IFR aircraft or the final approach for VFR aircraft.

At the beginning of the final approach segment, the current altimeter setting will be set by those aircraft capable of such a setting.

Aircraft that are unable to set altimeter settings above 31.00 inches of mercury will retain a 31.00 inches of mercury setting throughout the entire approach. Aircraft on departure or missed approach will set 31.00 inches of mercury prior to reaching any mandatory or fix crossing altitude, or 1 500 feet above ground level (AGL), whichever is lower.

Check for any specific instructions from ATC regarding altimeter settings for high-pressure conditions. In the absence of specific instructions, the aitmeter must be set to 31.00 in Hg as a maximum unless you are cruising within standard pressure.

The configuration that would produce the lowest indicated stall speed at wings level is “Full flaps with power on”. Full flaps increase the wing’s camber and surface area, which enhances lift, allowing the aircraft to fly slower without stalling. Having the power on adds thrust, which helps maintain airflow over the wings, further reducing the stall speed.

1. Centrifugal Force:

During a turn, the airplane experiences centrifugal force (an apparent force that pushes the aircraft outward, away from the center of the turn). This force is a result of the airplane’s change in direction as it follows a curved path. To maintain the turn, the airplane must exert an equal and opposite force, which is lift, to counteract this centrifugal force.

The centrifugal force increases with the square of the speed and the curvature of the turn (the tighter the turn and the faster the aircraft, the greater the centrifugal force).

This force adds to the vertical load the aircraft is carrying, as it has to counterbalance not only gravity but also the outward pull due to the turn.

2. Gravity:

Gravity is a constant force acting vertically downward toward the center of the Earth. During a coordinated turn, gravity is constantly pulling the aircraft downward, and this must be counteracted by the vertical component of the lift produced by the wings.

When an aircraft is in a turn, the lift vector is tilted because the aircraft is banked. The total lift generated by the wings must be increased in order to counteract both the force of gravity and the centrifugal force resulting from the turn.

3. Load Factor:

The load factor (or G-force) is the ratio of the total lift generated by the aircraft to the aircraft’s weight. In a coordinated turn, as the aircraft banks, the lift vector is split into two components:

One component counteracts gravity.

The other component counters the centrifugal force.

As the load factor increases, the total lift the aircraft must generate also increases to maintain altitude and prevent the aircraft from losing altitude in the turn. This increased load factor is what pilots often feel as increased “G-force” during a turn. The greater the bank angle or the faster the aircraft turns, the higher the load factor becomes.

Summary:

In a constant altitude coordinated turn, the load factor results from the combination of centrifugal force (acting outward) and gravity (acting downward). The aircraft must generate enough lift to counteract both of these forces to maintain level flight during the turn. The faster the turn or the steeper the bank angle, the higher the load factor, which increases the total lift required.

During a bank/roll, an aeroplane will rotate around its longitudinal axis.

During pitch, an aeroplane will rotate around its lateral axis.

During yaw, an aeroplane will rotate around its vertical axis.

In flight, any aircraft will rotate about its center of gravity, a point which is the average location of the mass of the aircraft.

What Is Somatogravic Illusion?

Somatogravic illusions occur during rapid acceleration and deceleration in flight. This illusion usually happens when there’s limited exterior visibility, and you react to body senses over actual flight instrument readings.

As you accelerate, your body senses a pitch-up motion, so your natural reaction is to pitch down. The reverse is true for deceleration, where deceleration is felt as a pitch-down motion and your reaction is to pull back on the yoke to pitch up.

While the illusion can happen during deceleration, one of the most common examples of this illusion is from the rapid acceleration during a go-around while flying through reduced visibility or night-time conditions.

Imagine you’re flying an instrument approach. As you reach decision altitude, the runway is nowhere in sight. As you add power to go around, you rapidly transition from a slow approach to an accelerating climb-out. You look down in the cockpit to change power, flaps, and landing gear settings. In the back of your mind, you sense that you’re pitching up more than you need to, so you correct by pitching down, all without actually looking at your attitude indicator. And seconds later, you’re nose low, descending toward the ground.

Radiation fog is formed on clear nights with light winds. The ground cools losing heat through radiation. The air in direct contact with the earth’s surface is cooled. If the air is moist and the temperature is lowered below the dewpoint, fog will form.

The primary conditions conducive to the formation of radiation fog include:

1. Clear Skies and Light Winds: Clear skies allow for efficicent radiative cooling of the Earth’s surface, while light winds prevent the mixing of the air near the surface.
2. Cooling of the surface: The near surface air cool rapidly during the nighttime and this cooling causes the air temperature to drop to the dew point temperature, leading to the condensation of water vapor and the formation of fog.
3. Moist air

Low level airspace and Air Routes

What is low-level airspace?

All airspace within the Canadian Domestic Airspace (CDA) below 18,000 ft ASL

What is a low-level airway?

Low level airways, starts from 2,200 ft AGL up to, but not including, 18,000 ft ASL.

An airway is within Class E controlled airspace.

What is a low-level air route?

Low-level air routes, starts from the surface of the earth upwards until ATC service is not provided.

An air route is within Class G uncontrolled airspace. ATC separation is not provided to IFR or VFR aircraft

Pilots operating VFR en route in uncontrolled airspace should continuously monitor 126.7 MHz when not communicating on the MF or ATF.

How are they depicted on a  LO Chart?

Controlled Airspace:

If it is based on a VHF/UHF navaid, the line is black. If it is based on a LF/MF navaid, the line is green.

Controlled low level airways based on a VOR/TACAN/VORTAC are depicted as black lines with the letter V for Victor airways. Controlled low level airway based on an NDB are green lines.

This is a controlled low level GNSS RNAV route. They are called T routes, which are low-level controlled fixed RNAV routes

Un-controlled airspace

Un-controlled air routes are depicted as a dashed line and a dot. VHF air routes are black and NDB air routes are green.

This is an uncontrolled GNSS RNAV route. The are called L-routes, which are low-level uncontrolled fixed RNAV routes

Summary:

An airway is in controlled airspace.
An air route is in uncontrolled airspace.

Air airway begins at 2200 AGL up to 17,999 ft.
An air route begins at the surface up to 17,999 ft.

Airway and air route don’t overlie each other (are not on layered top of each other). They are separate navigation “roads” within the sky that might intersect/criss cross each other.

CAR 602.114 Minimum Visual Meteorological Conditions for VFR Flight in Controlled Airspace

No person shall operate an aircraft in VFR flight within controlled airspace unless

(a) the aircraft is operated with visual reference to the surface;

(b) flight visibility is not less than three miles;

(c) the distance of the aircraft from cloud is not less than 500 feet vertically and one mile horizontally; and

(d) where the aircraft is operated within a control zone,

(i) when reported, ground visibility is not less than three miles, and

(ii) except when taking off or landing, the distance of the aircraft from the surface is not less than 500 feet.

CAR 602.115 Minimum Visual Meteorological Conditions for VFR Flight in Uncontrolled Airspace

No person shall operate an aircraft in VFR flight within uncontrolled airspace unless

(a) the aircraft is operated with visual reference to the surface;

(b) where the aircraft is operated at or above 1,000 feet AGL

(i) during the day, flight visibility is not less than one mile,

(ii) during the night, flight visibility is not less than three miles, and

(iii) in either case, the distance of the aircraft from cloud is not less than 500 feet vertically and 2,000 feet horizontally;

(c) where the aircraft is not a helicopter and is operated at less than 1,000 feet AGL

(i) during the day, flight visibility is not less than two miles, except if otherwise authorized in an air operator certificate,

(ii) during the night, flight visibility is not less than three miles, and

(iii) in either case, the aircraft is operated clear of cloud; and

(d) where the aircraft is a helicopter and is operated at less than 1,000 feet AGL

(i) during the day, flight visibility is not less than one mile, except if otherwise authorized in an air operator certificate or a flight training unit operator certificate — helicopter,

(ii) during the night, flight visibility is not less than three miles, and

(iii) in either case, the aircraft is operated clear of cloud.

CAR 602.62 Life Preservers and Flotation Devices

(1) No person shall conduct a take-off or a landing on water in an aircraft or operate an aircraft over water beyond a point where the aircraft could reach shore in the event of an engine failure, unless a life preserver, individual flotation device or personal flotation device is carried for each person on board.

(2) No person shall operate a land aeroplane, gyroplane, helicopter or airship at more than 50 nautical miles from shore unless a life preserver is carried for each person on board.

(3) No person shall operate a balloon at more than two nautical miles from shore unless a life preserver, individual flotation device or personal flotation device is carried for each person on board.

(4) Subject to subsection (5), for aircraft other than balloons, every life preserver, individual flotation device and personal flotation device referred to in this section shall be stowed in a position that is easily accessible to the person for whose use it is provided, when that person is seated.

(5) In cases where infant life preservers are carried on board an aircraft operated with flight attendants on board, the infant life preservers may be stowed in bulk in a location that is easily accessible to the flight attendants if

(a) the location is adjacent to a ditching emergency exit and is clearly marked as the stowage location for infant life preservers; and

(b) the operator has established procedures that require flight attendants to distribute an infant life preserver to each passenger responsible for an infant when preparing for a ditching.

602.63 Life Rafts and Survival Equipment — Flights over Water

(1) No person shall operate over water a single-engined aeroplane, or a multi-engined aeroplane that is unable to maintain flight with any engine failed, at more than 100 nautical miles, or the distance that can be covered in 30 minutes of flight at the cruising speed filed in the flight plan or flight itinerary, whichever distance is the lesser, from a suitable emergency landing site unless life rafts are carried on board and are sufficient in total rated capacity to accommodate all of the persons on board.

(2) Subject to subsection (3), no person shall operate over water a multi-engined aeroplane that is able to maintain flight with any engine failed at more than 200 nautical miles, or the distance that can be covered in 60 minutes of flight at the cruising speed filed in the flight plan or flight itinerary, whichever distance is the lesser, from a suitable emergency landing site unless life rafts are carried on board and are sufficient in total rated capacity to accommodate all of the persons on board.

(3) A person may operate over water a transport category aircraft that is an aeroplane, at up to 400 nautical miles, or the distance that can be covered in 120 minutes of flight at the cruising speed filed in the flight plan or flight itinerary, whichever distance is the lesser, from a suitable emergency landing site without the life rafts referred to in subsection (2) being carried on board.

(4) No person shall operate over water a single-engined helicopter, or a multi-engined helicopter that is unable to maintain flight with any engine failed, at more than 25 nautical miles, or the distance that can be covered in 15 minutes of flight at the cruising speed filed in the flight plan or flight itinerary, whichever distance is the lesser, from a suitable emergency landing site unless life rafts are carried on board and are sufficient in total rated capacity to accommodate all of the persons on board.

(5) No person shall operate over water a multi-engined helicopter that is able to maintain flight with any engine failed at more than 50 nautical miles, or the distance that can be covered in 30 minutes of flight at the cruising speed filed in the flight plan or flight itinerary, whichever distance is the lesser, from a suitable emergency landing site unless life rafts are carried on board and are sufficient in total rated capacity to accommodate all of the persons on board.

(6) The life rafts referred to in this section shall be

(a) stowed so that they are easily accessible for use in the event of a ditching;

(b) installed in conspicuously marked locations near an exit; and

(c) equipped with an attached survival kit, sufficient for the survival on water of each person on board the aircraft, given the geographical area, the season of the year and anticipated seasonal climatic variations, that provides a means for

(i) providing shelter,

(ii) providing or purifying water, and

(iii) visually signalling distress.

(7) Where a helicopter is required to carry life rafts pursuant to subsection (4) or (5), no person shall operate the helicopter over water having a temperature of less than 10^oC unless

(a) a helicopter passenger transportation suit system that conforms to paragraph 551.407(c) of the Airworthiness Manual is provided for each passenger on board;

(b) a helicopter crew member transportation suit system is provided for each crew member on board; and

(c) the pilot-in-command directs all persons on board to wear their helicopter transportation suit system.

(8) Every person who has been directed to wear a helicopter transportation suit system pursuant to paragraph (7)(c) shall wear that suit system.

(9) Paragraph (7)(a) does not apply if

(a) the flight is necessary in order to respond to a medical emergency or any other emergency that is a threat to the safety of persons and

(i) the helicopter is a transport category rotorcraft, in respect of which a type certificate has been issued, that meets the requirements of Chapter 529 — Transport Category Rotorcraft of the Airworthiness Manualthat are applicable to Category A rotorcraft,

(ii) there is insufficient time before the flight to acquire a helicopter passenger transportation suit system of the appropriate size for each passenger, and

(iii) there is a crew member in the cabin for the duration of the flight who is trained to assist passengers in an emergency evacuation in the event of a landing in water and who is able to come to the assistance of passengers; or

(b) there is a medical reason that prevents a passenger from wearing a helicopter passenger transportation suit system.

(10) A passenger who is not wearing a helicopter passenger transportation suit system for a reason referred to in subparagraph (9)(a)(ii) or paragraph (9)(b) shall be provided with a life preserver and the pilot-in-command shall direct the passenger to wear the life preserver for the duration of the flight if they are physically and medically able to do so.

CAR 401.30 Aeroplanes — Privileges and Requirements

(1) Subject to subsection (3), the holder of a commercial pilot licence — aeroplane may, by day or night,

(a) exercise the privileges of a private pilot licence — aeroplane;

(b) exercise the privileges of a VFR OTT rating;

(c) while engaged in providing a commercial air service by means of an aeroplane of a class and type in respect of which the licence is endorsed with ratings, act as

(i) pilot-in-command of the aeroplane, if the minimum flight crew document for the aeroplane specifies a minimum flight crew of one pilot, or

(ii) co-pilot of the aeroplane;

(d) if qualified as a flight instructor in accordance with section 425.21 of Standard 425 — Flight Training, conduct flight instruction; and

(e) exercise private pilot licence — aeroplane privileges until the end of the medical validity period specified for the private pilot licence.

(2) Where an applicant meets the requirements specified in the personnel licensing standards in respect of a commercial pilot licence — aeroplane except the night flight time requirements, the Minister shall issue to the applicant a commercial pilot licence — aeroplane endorsed for daylight flying only.

(3) No holder of a commercial pilot licence — aeroplane whose licence is endorsed with a daylight-flying-only restriction shall exercise the privileges set out in paragraphs (1)(a) and (c) by night.

(4) The Minister shall remove the daylight-flying-only restriction if an applicant meets the night flight time requirements of the personnel licensing standards.

CAR 602.32 Airspeed Limitations

(1) Subject to subsection (2), no person shall

(a) operate an aircraft at an indicated airspeed of more than 250 knots if the aircraft is below 10,000 feet ASL; or

(b) operate an aircraft at an indicated airspeed of more than 200 knots if the aircraft is below 3,000 feet AGL within 10 nautical miles of a controlled aerodrome unless authorized to do so in an air traffic control clearance.

(2) A person may operate an aircraft at an indicated airspeed greater than the airspeeds referred to in subsection (1) if the aircraft is being operated in accordance with a special flight operations certificate – special aviation event issued pursuant to section 603.02.

(3) If the minimum safe airspeed for the flight configuration of an aircraft is greater than the airspeed referred to in subsection (1), the aircraft shall be operated at the minimum safe airspeed.

CAR 602.12 Overflight of Built-up Areas or Open-air Assemblies of Persons during Take-offs, Approaches and Landings

(1) For the purposes of this section and sections 602.14 and 602.15, an aircraft shall be deemed to be operated over a built-up area or over an open-air assembly of persons if the built-up area or open-air assembly of persons is within a horizontal distance of

(a) 500 feet from a helicopter or balloon; or

(b) 2,000 feet from an aircraft other than a helicopter or balloon.

CAR 602.14 Minimum Altitudes and Distances

(2) Except where conducting a take-off, approach or landing or where permitted under section 602.15, no person shall operate an aircraft

(a) over a built-up area or over an open-air assembly of persons unless the aircraft is operated at an altitude from which, in the event of an emergency necessitating an immediate landing, it would be possible to land the aircraft without creating a hazard to persons or property on the surface, and, in any case, at an altitude that is not lower than

(i) for aeroplanes, 1,000 feet above the highest obstacle located within a horizontal distance of 2,000 feet from the aeroplane,

(ii) for balloons, 500 feet above the highest obstacle located within a horizontal distance of 500 feet from the balloon, or

(iii) for an aircraft other than an aeroplane or a balloon, 1,000 feet above the highest obstacle located within a horizontal distance of 500 feet from the aircraft; and

(b) in circumstances other than those referred to in paragraph (a), at a distance less than 500 feet from any person, vessel, vehicle or structure.

602.15 Permissible Low Altitude Flight

(1) A person may operate an aircraft at altitudes and distances less than those specified in subsection 602.14(2) where the aircraft is operated at altitudes and distances that are no less than necessary for the purposes of the operation in which the aircraft is engaged, the aircraft is operated without creating a hazard to persons or property on the surface and the aircraft is operated

(a) for the purpose of a police operation that is conducted in the service of a police authority;

(b) for the purpose of saving human life;

(c) for fire-fighting or air ambulance operations;

(d) for the purpose of the administration of the Fisheries Act or the Coastal Fisheries Protection Act;

(e) for the purpose of the administration of the national or provincial parks; or

(f) for the purpose of flight inspection.

(2) A person may operate an aircraft, to the extent necessary for the purpose of the operation in which the aircraft is engaged, at altitudes and distances less than those set out in

(a) paragraph 602.14(2)(a), where operation of the aircraft is authorized under Subpart 3 or section 702.22; or

(b) paragraph 602.14(2)(b), where the aircraft is operated without creating a hazard to persons or property on the surface and the aircraft is operated for the purpose of

(i) aerial application or aerial inspection,

(ii) aerial photography conducted by the holder of an air operator certificate,

(iii) helicopter external load operations, or

(iv) flight training conducted by or under the supervision of a qualified flight instructor.

AIM RAC 4.5.5

An Aerodrome Traffic Frequency (ATF) is normally designated for active uncontrolled aerodromes that do not meet the criteria listed in RAC 4.5.4 for an MF.

The ATF is established to ensure that all radio-equipped aircraft operating on the ground or within the area are listening on a common frequency and following common reporting procedures.

The ATF will normally be the frequency of the UNICOM where one exists or 123.2 MHz where a UNICOM does not exist.

CAR 602.114 Minimum Visual Meteorological Conditions for VFR Flight in Controlled Airspace

No person shall operate an aircraft in VFR flight within controlled airspace unless

(a) the aircraft is operated with visual reference to the surface;

(b) flight visibility is not less than three miles;

(c) the distance of the aircraft from cloud is not less than 500 feet vertically and one mile horizontally; and

(d) where the aircraft is operated within a control zone,

(i) when reported, ground visibility is not less than three miles, and

(ii) except when taking off or landing, the distance of the aircraft from the surface is not less than 500 feet.

CAR 602.115 Minimum Visual Meteorological Conditions for VFR Flight in Uncontrolled Airspace

No person shall operate an aircraft in VFR flight within uncontrolled airspace unless

(a) the aircraft is operated with visual reference to the surface;

(b) where the aircraft is operated at or above 1,000 feet AGL

(i) during the day, flight visibility is not less than one mile,

(ii) during the night, flight visibility is not less than three miles, and

(iii) in either case, the distance of the aircraft from cloud is not less than 500 feet vertically and 2,000 feet horizontally;

(c) where the aircraft is not a helicopter and is operated at less than 1,000 feet AGL

(i) during the day, flight visibility is not less than two miles, except if otherwise authorized in an air operator certificate,

(ii) during the night, flight visibility is not less than three miles, and

(iii) in either case, the aircraft is operated clear of cloud; and

(d) where the aircraft is a helicopter and is operated at less than 1,000 feet AGL

(i) during the day, flight visibility is not less than one mile, except if otherwise authorized in an air operator certificate or a flight training unit operator certificate — helicopter,

(ii) during the night, flight visibility is not less than three miles, and

(iii) in either case, the aircraft is operated clear of cloud.

CAR 602.32 Airspeed Limitations

(1) Subject to subsection (2), no person shall

(a) operate an aircraft at an indicated airspeed of more than 250 knots if the aircraft is below 10,000 feet ASL; or

(b) operate an aircraft at an indicated airspeed of more than 200 knots if the aircraft is below 3,000 feet AGL within 10 nautical miles of a controlled aerodrome unless authorized to do so in an air traffic control clearance.

(2) A person may operate an aircraft at an indicated airspeed greater than the airspeeds referred to in subsection (1) if the aircraft is being operated in accordance with a special flight operations certificate – special aviation event issued pursuant to section 603.02.

(3) If the minimum safe airspeed for the flight configuration of an aircraft is greater than the airspeed referred to in subsection (1), the aircraft shall be operated at the minimum safe airspeed.

AIM RAC 2.8.6 Class F Airspace

Class F airspace is airspace of defined dimensions within which activities must be confined because of their nature, and within which limitations may be imposed upon aircraft operations that are not a part of those activities.

Class F airspace may be restricted airspace, advisory airspace, military operations areas, or danger areas and can be controlled airspace, uncontrolled airspace, or a combination of both.

Unless otherwise specified, the rules for the surrounding airspace apply in areas of Class F airspace, no matter if these areas are active or inactive.

Class F airspace is designated in the DAH (TP 1820) and published on the appropriate aeronautical charts.

AIM RAC 2.8.6 Class F Airspace

Class F airspace is airspace of defined dimensions within which activities must be confined because of their nature, and within which limitations may be imposed upon aircraft operations that are not a part of those activities.

Class F airspace may be restricted airspace, advisory airspace, military operations areas, or danger areas and can be controlled airspace, uncontrolled airspace, or a combination of both.

Unless otherwise specified, the rules for the surrounding airspace apply in areas of Class F airspace, no matter if these areas are active or inactive.

Class F airspace is designated in the DAH (TP 1820) and published on the appropriate aeronautical charts.

Reference: CAR 605.31 Oxygen Requirements for Pressurized Aircraft

All crew members and 10 per cent of passengers and, in any case, no less than one passenger.

(a) Entire period of flight exceeding 30 minutes at cabin-pressure-altitudes above 10,000 feet ASL but not exceeding 13,000 feet ASL

(b) Entire period of flight at cabin-pressure-altitudes above 13,000 feet ASL

Reference CARs 605.32

(1) Where an aircraft is operated at cabin-pressure-altitudes above 10,000 feet ASL but not exceeding 13,000 feet ASL, each crew member shall wear an oxygen mask and use supplemental oxygen for any part of the flight at those altitudes that is more than 30 minutes in duration.

(2) Where an aircraft is operated at cabin-pressure-altitudes above 13,000 feet ASL, each person on board the aircraft shall wear an oxygen mask and use supplemental oxygen for the duration of the flight at those altitudes.

(3) The pilot at the flight controls of an aircraft shall use an oxygen mask if

(a) the aircraft is not equipped with quick-donning oxygen masks and is operated at or above flight level 250; or

(b) the aircraft is equipped with quick-donning oxygen masks and is operated above flight level 410.

Reference: CAR 605.31 Oxygen Requirements for Pressurized Aircraft

All crew members and 10 per cent of passengers and, in any case, no less than one passenger.

(a) Entire period of flight exceeding 30 minutes at cabin-pressure-altitudes above 10,000 feet ASL but not exceeding 13,000 feet ASL

(b) Entire period of flight at cabin-pressure-altitudes above 13,000 feet ASL

Reference CARs 605.32

(1) Where an aircraft is operated at cabin-pressure-altitudes above 10,000 feet ASL but not exceeding 13,000 feet ASL, each crew member shall wear an oxygen mask and use supplemental oxygen for any part of the flight at those altitudes that is more than 30 minutes in duration.

(2) Where an aircraft is operated at cabin-pressure-altitudes above 13,000 feet ASL, each person on board the aircraft shall wear an oxygen mask and use supplemental oxygen for the duration of the flight at those altitudes.

(3) The pilot at the flight controls of an aircraft shall use an oxygen mask if

(a) the aircraft is not equipped with quick-donning oxygen masks and is operated at or above flight level 250; or

(b) the aircraft is equipped with quick-donning oxygen masks and is operated above flight level 410.

Reference CARs 605.32

(1) Where an aircraft is operated at cabin-pressure-altitudes above 10,000 feet ASL but not exceeding 13,000 feet ASL, each crew member shall wear an oxygen mask and use supplemental oxygen for any part of the flight at those altitudes that is more than 30 minutes in duration.

(2) Where an aircraft is operated at cabin-pressure-altitudes above 13,000 feet ASL, each person on board the aircraft shall wear an oxygen mask and use supplemental oxygen for the duration of the flight at those altitudes.

(3) The pilot at the flight controls of an aircraft shall use an oxygen mask if

(a) the aircraft is not equipped with quick-donning oxygen masks and is operated at or above flight level 250; or

(b) the aircraft is equipped with quick-donning oxygen masks and is operated above flight level 410.

Relative Humidity: The ratio of the existing amount of water vapor in the air at a given temperature to the maximum amount that could exist at that temperature; usually expressed in percent.

The relative humidity of an air mass increases when precipitation falls into it because precipitation adds moisture to the air mass.

100% relative humidity indicates saturation. If relative humidity is 20 %, the air contains 20 % of the water vapor that it could potentially hold at that temperature. If you increase the temperature, however, the amount of water vapor the air can hold increases, so the relative humidity decreases.

When air subsides it warms up and also decreases relative humidity.

Relative Humidity: The ratio of the existing amount of water vapor in the air at a given temperature to the maximum amount that could exist at that temperature; usually expressed in percent.

The relative humidity of an air mass increases when precipitation falls into it because precipitation adds moisture to the air mass.

100% relative humidity indicates saturation. If relative humidity is 20 %, the air contains 20 % of the water vapor that it could potentially hold at that temperature. If you increase the temperature, however, the amount of water vapor the air can hold increases, so the relative humidity decreases.

When air subsides it warms up and also decreases relative humidity.

Radiation fog is formed on clear nights with light winds. The ground cools losing heat through radiation. The air in direct contact with the earth’s surface is cooled. If the air is moist and the temperature is lowered below the dewpoint, fog will form.

The primary conditions conducive to the formation of radiation fog include:

1. Clear Skies and Light Winds: Clear skies allow for efficicent radiative cooling of the Earth’s surface, while light winds prevent the mixing of the air near the surface.
2. Cooling of the surface: The near surface air cool rapidly during the nighttime and this cooling causes the air temperature to drop to the dew point temperature, leading to the condensation of water vapor and the formation of fog.
3. Moist air

Handbook for Civil aviation Medical Examiners

Hypoxia is an insidious killer. There is a tendency for euphoria to develop while motor skills and reasoning abilities deteriorate. The result is that in many cases the pilot may become seriously hypoxic without appreciating that there is a problem. To the observer tachypnea, cyanosis, mental confusion and loss of muscle coordination are obvious. To the pilot however, the only symptoms may be slight dyspnea, dizziness, fatigue, decreasing vision and finally loss of muscular control. Night vision can be impaired at as low as 5000 ft. Tolerance to hypoxia varies from individual to individual and from time to time. Tolerance can be increased by continual exposure to high altitudes and varies with the level of the hemoglobin and the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood. It is decreased by fatigue, cold and poor physical conditioning. Even at 5,000 ft. night vision is decreased.

Types

Hypoxia is generally divided into four types.

Hypoxic hypoxia is due to a decrease in the oxygen available to the body such as typically occurs with altitude.

Hypemic hypoxia is caused by a reduction in the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood for any reason. It also occurs when hemoglobin is saturated by gases for which it has a higher affinity, the most common of which is carbon monoxide. This is not only produced by exhaust leaks into the cockpit but also by cigarette smoking. Carbon monoxide is a product of incomplete combustion and may be present at levels of 6-8% in the blood of a heavy smoker and such individuals may become significantly hypoxic at levels below 10,000 ft.

Stagnant hypoxia is a less common problem caused by a reduction in total cardiac output, pooling of the blood or restriction of blood flow. Heart failure, shock, continuous positive pressure breathing and Gforces in flight can create stagnant hypoxia. Local stagnant hypoxia can occur with tight and restrictive clothing or, in the cerebral circulation, in association with vasoconstriction due to respiratory alkalosis provoked by hyperventilation.

Histotoxic hypoxia refers to poisoning of the respiratory cytochrome system by chemicals such as cyanide or carbon monoxide but it can also be caused by the effects of alcohol. Needless to say a pilot in poor physical condition, recovering from a hangover and smoking while in flight can quickly become an unfortunate statistic!

AIM AIR 3.2.2 Carbon Monoxide

Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless, tasteless gas that is a product of incomplete combustion. Haemoglobin, the oxygen- carrying chemical in the blood, picks up carbon monoxide over 200 times more readily than it picks up oxygen. Thus, even minute quantities in the cockpit (often from improperly vented exhaust fumes) may result in pilot incapacitation.

The symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning are insidious. Initially, there is an inability to concentrate, thinking becomes blurred, and subsequently dizziness and headache develop. If any of these symptoms are noticed, pilots should turn off the heater, open the air ventilators and descend to a lower altitude if it is safe to do so. If oxygen is available, it should be used. If an exhaust leak is suspected, the pilot should land the aircraft as soon as possible.

Smoking is a source of carbon monoxide. Smokers carry some carbon monoxide in their blood all the time, and may have 5 to 10 percent of their haemoglobin saturated with carbon monoxide. This reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood and smokers may become hypoxic at altitudes below 10 000 ft ASL (3 050 m).

AIM AIR 3.9 ALCOHOL

Never fly while under the influence of alcohol. It is best to allow at least 24 hours between the last drink and take-off time. Alcohol is selectively concentrated by the body into certain areas and can remain in the fluid of the inner ear even after all traces of alcohol in the blood have disappeared. This accounts for the difficulty in balance that is experienced in a hangover. Even small amounts of alcohol (0.05 percent) have been shown in simulators to reduce piloting skills. The body metabolizes alcohol at a fixed rate and no amount of coffee, medication or oxygen will alter this rate. ALCOHOL AND FLYING DO NOT MIX.

If you find that you are drinking excessively or encountering problems related to alcohol, you must refrain from flying and seek assistance. Transport Canada has a policy and pathway to return to flying with the appropriate treatment and monitoring. Early intervention and active engagement are best for long-term success.

Alcohol or Drugs — Crew Members

602.03 No person shall act as a crew member of an aircraft

(a) within 12 hours after consuming an alcoholic beverage;

(b) while under the influence of alcohol; or

(c) while using any drug that impairs the person’s faculties to the extent that the safety of the aircraft or of persons on board the aircraft is endangered in any way.

The diurnal variation of wind primarily occurs due to differential heating and cooling of the Earth’s surface throughout the day and night. During the daytime, the Sun heats the Earth’s surface. Differential surfaces, such as land and water, absorb and retain heat differently, creating variations in temperature. This uneven heating causes air to warm and rise over warmer surfaces, creating areas of lower pressure.

The wind veers when it changes direction clockwise. Example: The surface wind is blowing from 270°. At 2000 feet it is blowing from 280°. It has changed in a right-hand, or clockwise, direction.

The wind backs when it changes direction anti-clockwise. Example: The wind direction at 2000 feet is 090° and at 3000 feet is 085°. It is changing in a left-hand, or anti-clockwise, direction.

In a descent from several thousand feet above the ground to ground level, the wind will usually be found to back and also decrease in velocity, as the effect of surface friction becomes apparent. In a climb from the surface to several thousand feet AGL, the wind will veer and increase.

At night, surface cooling reduces the eddy motion of the air. Surface winds will “Back and Decrease”. Conversely, during the day, surface heating increases the eddy motion of the air. Surface winds will “Veer and Increase” as stronger winds aloft mix to the surface.

Turbulence caused by strong surface heating can lead to increased wind direction and speed near the surface due to the mixing of air massess and the formation of convectice currents.

There is often little temperature change at the surface as an upper level front passes.

Upper-level fronts by themselves are not associated with much surface weather, but they are quite significant for aviation forecasting.
The zone of an upper-level front often features strong turbulence excited by strong vertical wind shear, so commercial aircraft generally try to avoid them.

Upper-level fronts are most often found in the vicinity of strong jet streams.

Radiation fog is formed on clear nights with light winds. The ground cools losing heat through radiation. The air in direct contact with the earth’s surface is cooled. If the air is moist and the temperature is lowered below the dewpoint, fog will form.

The primary conditions conducive to the formation of radiation fog include:

1. Clear Skies and Light Winds: Clear skies allow for efficicent radiative cooling of the Earth’s surface, while light winds prevent the mixing of the air near the surface.
2. Cooling of the surface: The near surface air cool rapidly during the nighttime and this cooling causes the air temperature to drop to the dew point temperature, leading to the condensation of water vapor and the formation of fog.
3. Moist air

It’s important to remember that the trim tab moves opposite to the flight control. If you see the elevator trim tab pointing down, it means it is forcing the elevator up, which commands a nose up pitch attitude for a climb.

If you see the right aileron trim tab pointing down, it means it is forcing the right aileron up, and also moving the left aileron to move down, causing a bank to the right for a right turn.

How Aileron and Elevator Trim Tabs Work:

Trim tabs are small adjustable surfaces attached to the trailing edge of the primary control surfaces, such as the ailerons and the elevators, of an aircraft. They are used to reduce the pilot’s workload by maintaining the aircraft’s desired attitude without continuous control input. Here’s a detailed explanation of how aileron and elevator trim tabs work:

1. Aileron Trim Tabs:

The aileron trim tab is located on the trailing edge of the aileron, typically on the wing. It adjusts the aileron’s effectiveness by creating a small aerodynamic force that helps maintain the desired roll attitude of the aircraft without constant input from the pilot.

How They Work:

Purpose: The main purpose of the aileron trim tab is to eliminate the need for continuous pressure on the control stick or yoke to maintain level flight or a desired bank angle.

Movement: When the pilot adjusts the aileron trim, the trim tab moves in relation to the aileron. If the aircraft is rolling to one side (i.e., the aircraft is uncoordinated or rolling due to aerodynamic forces), the pilot can adjust the aileron trim tab to counteract this roll tendency.

Effect:

If the aircraft is rolling to the right and the pilot wants to stop the roll, the right aileron trim tab can be adjusted down (or left up) to create an aerodynamic force that resists the roll.

Conversely, if the aircraft is rolling to the left, the left aileron trim tab can be adjusted down to help resist the roll, keeping the aircraft level.

Adjustment Mechanism:

Typically, the aileron trim is adjusted by a wheel or a lever in the cockpit, which mechanically or electrically moves the trim tab to create the desired amount of resistance on the aileron.

By adjusting the trim, the pilot can fine-tune the control surface so that less effort is needed to maintain straight and level flight or a constant bank angle.

2. Elevator Trim Tabs:

The elevator trim tab is located on the trailing edge of the horizontal stabilizer or elevator, and its function is to adjust the aircraft’s pitch attitude.

How They Work:

Purpose: The elevator trim tab is used to relieve the pilot from constantly holding pressure on the control yoke or stick to maintain a certain pitch attitude (e.g., level flight or climb).

Movement: When the elevator trim tab is adjusted, it changes the airflow around the horizontal stabilizer, creating a force that either increases or decreases the aircraft’s pitch attitude.

Effect:

If the aircraft’s nose is pitched up, the pilot can adjust the trim tab downward to relieve the pressure on the yoke/stick, helping the aircraft to return to a more neutral attitude.

If the aircraft’s nose is pitched down, the pilot can adjust the trim tab upward to keep the nose up and reduce the forward pressure needed on the controls.

Adjustment Mechanism:

The elevator trim can be adjusted via a wheel, knob, or lever, depending on the aircraft’s design. The trim tab moves relative to the elevator, creating the necessary aerodynamic force to achieve the desired pitch attitude.

In some aircraft, especially older models, the elevator trim tab is manually adjusted, while modern aircraft often use electric or hydraulic systems to adjust the trim tab automatically.

3. Types of Trim Tabs:

Fixed Trim Tab: A fixed trim tab is simply a small piece of control surface that is set at a fixed angle to the primary control surface. It is used to create a small force that requires no further adjustment unless manually changed.

Adjustable Trim Tab: An adjustable trim tab allows the pilot to change the angle of the tab to fine-tune the aerodynamic force required to hold the desired attitude or trajectory of the aircraft.

4. Key Benefits of Trim Tabs:

Reduced Pilot Workload: Trim tabs allow pilots to relieve pressure on the control yoke or stick, especially during long flights, reducing fatigue and making it easier to maintain a steady course.

Improved Stability: Trim tabs help to counteract aerodynamic forces that cause the aircraft to deviate from its desired attitude. This can improve the overall stability of the aircraft.

Fuel Efficiency: By reducing the amount of continuous control input required, trim tabs help the aircraft maintain a steady flight attitude with minimal power, which can contribute to fuel efficiency over time.

5. Aileron vs. Elevator Trim Tabs:

Aileron Trim Tab: Primarily used to control roll, ensuring that the aircraft remains level or maintains a desired bank angle without the need for constant input from the pilot. It is particularly useful when there is asymmetric loading, such as a heavy load on one wing or a crosswind.

Elevator Trim Tab: Primarily used to control pitch, allowing the pilot to maintain the desired pitch attitude (e.g., level flight, climb, or descent) without needing to apply continuous pressure on the control stick or yoke.

What is Maneuvering Speed?

Maneuvering speed, or V_a, is an airspeed published by your aircraft’s manufacturer that guarantees that your aircraft will stall before you reach the maximum certified g-load.

Aircraft V_a is certified with the assumption of the movement of a single flight control surface, in a single direction, in smooth air.

The essential concept behind V_a protection is that, assuming you are at or below your V_a your aircraft will stall as you reach its’ maximum structural load (g-limit). As your plane stalls, it unloads the g’s, eliminating the risk of bending metal.

Relationship Of Weight And Maneuvering Speed

When your aircraft is certified, its maneuvering speed is determined at maximum gross weight. As your aircraft gets lighter, your maneuvering speed gets slower. This is the confusing part of maneuvering speed, but it doesn’t have to be.

Increased Weight → Increases AOA → Increases V_a

Aircraft weight affects the Angle of Attack (AOA) you fly at to maintain level flight. While a lower weight might only require one or two degrees of nose-up pitch to maintain level flight, a heavier aircraft might require a few more degrees of pitch up to stay level, assuming the aircraft’s speed and configuration remain the same.

This is because, at the same speed and configuration, a heavier aircraft needs to fly at a higher angle of attack to produce enough lift to counter the aircraft’s weight in level flight.

It’s all about degrees. Your wing will always stall at the same AOA, with most general aviation planes stalling somewhere between 16 to 20 degrees of angle of attack.

With a heavier aircraft, your AOA in cruise is closer to the critical AOA, causing you to stall at a faster airspeed. A lighter aircraft will have more degrees of AOA to increase before it encounters the critical AOA, causing you to stall at a lower airspeed.

Human Factors For Aviation TP12863E

Note:

The Time of Useful Conciousness (TUC) or Effective Performance Time is the period of elapsed time from the interruption of normal air supply or exposure to an oxygen-poor environment until the time when the ability to function usefully is likely to be lost at which point an affected individual would no longer be capable of taking normal corrective or protective action.

Time of useful consciousness (TUC) is not the time to total unconsciousness.

The FAA handbook has slightly different numbers…

Reference: FAA Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge. Chapter 17: Aeromedical Factors.

Wind speed and direction changes

In the Northern Hemisphere, the winds veers (clockwise direction) when it speeds up.

In the Northern Hemisphere, the winds backs (counter-clockwise direction) when it slows down.

Summary:

From land to water: Veers + Increases speed.

The water is flat, smooth, and allows the winds to speed up. When winds increase, it naturally veers.

From water to land: Backs + Decreases speed.

The land is bumpy, rough, and slows down the wind. When winds slow down, it naturally backs.

From the Ground UP – Balanced Controls

Controls are sometimes dynamically balanced to assist the pilot to move them. By having some of the control surface in front of the hinge, the air striking the forward portion helps to move the control surface in the required direction. The design also helps to counteract adverse yaw when used in aileron design

Leasing Operations — General

203.03 (1) No person who is not the registered owner of an aircraft shall operate the aircraft as part of a leasing operation without an authorization issued pursuant to subsection (2) unless

(a) the lessor and the lessee each hold a Canadian operator certificate issued in respect of the aircraft type to be operated;

(b) the lessee is qualified to be the registered owner of a Canadian aircraft;

(c) the maintenance control system referred to in section 406.35 or 706.02 and the maintenance schedule approved by the Minister under subsection 605.86(2) are, during the term of the lease, equivalent for the lessor and the lessee;

(d) the crew members of the aircraft are employed by the lessee; and

(e) the registered owner informs the Minister in writing, no later than seven days after the term of the lease commences, of

(i) the registration mark, manufacturer model designation and serial number of the aircraft,

(ii) the names, addresses and telephone numbers, and facsimile numbers, if any, of the registered owner and the lessee,

(iii) the Canadian operator certificate number and the approved maintenance organization certificate numbers of the lessor and the lessee,

(iv) the commencement and termination dates of the lease,

(v) the name of the person who is responsible for the maintenance of the aircraft during the term of the lease, and

(vi) the address of the main maintenance base for the aircraft.

(2) Subject to section 203.08, the Minister shall, on receipt of an application from a Canadian air operator that conforms with the Standards Respecting the Operation of a Leased Aircraft by a Non-Registered Owner and that includes evidence that establishes that the Canadian air operator meets those standards, issue a written authorization to the Canadian air operator permitting the operation of a Canadian or foreign aircraft by the Canadian air operator, or the operation of a Canadian aircraft by a foreign operator, as part of a leasing operation, and shall specify in the authorization those conditions governing the operation that are necessary to ensure aviation safety.

(3) An authorization issued pursuant to subsection (2) expires on the earliest of

(a) the date on which the lease is terminated,

(b) the date specified by the Minister in the authorization,

(c) the date on which the certificate of registration of the aircraft is cancelled,

(d) the date on which the operator certificate is suspended or cancelled, and

(e) the date on which there is a change in any of the information that was submitted in support of the application referred to in subsection (2) and on which the issuance of the authorization was based.

(4) Where an authorization is required under subsection (1) and has been issued under subsection (2), no person shall operate a leased aircraft unless the authorization is carried on board.

(5) If a leasing advisory is provided to the Minister under subsection (1), no person shall operate a leased aircraft unless a copy of the advisory is carried on board.

Wind speed and direction changes

In the Northern Hemisphere, the winds veers (clockwise direction) when it speeds up.

In the Northern Hemisphere, the winds backs (counter-clockwise direction) when it slows down.

Summary:

From land to water: Veers + Increases speed.

The water is flat, smooth, and allows the winds to speed up. When winds increase, it naturally veers.

From water to land: Backs + Decreases speed.

The land is bumpy, rough, and slows down the wind. When winds slow down, it naturally backs.

Low level airspace and Air Routes

What is low-level airspace?

All airspace within the Canadian Domestic Airspace (CDA) below 18,000 ft ASL

What is a low-level airway?

Low level airways, starts from 2,200 ft AGL up to, but not including, 18,000 ft ASL.

An airway is within Class E controlled airspace.

What is a low-level air route?

Low-level air routes, starts from the surface of the earth upwards until ATC service is not provided.

An air route is within Class G uncontrolled airspace. ATC separation is not provided to IFR or VFR aircraft

Pilots operating VFR en route in uncontrolled airspace should continuously monitor 126.7 MHz when not communicating on the MF or ATF.

How are they depicted on a  LO Chart?

Controlled Airspace:

If it is based on a VHF/UHF navaid, the line is black. If it is based on a LF/MF navaid, the line is green.

Controlled low level airways based on a VOR/TACAN/VORTAC are depicted as black lines with the letter V for Victor airways. Controlled low level airway based on an NDB are green lines.

This is a controlled low level GNSS RNAV route. They are called T routes, which are low-level controlled fixed RNAV routes

Un-controlled airspace

Un-controlled air routes are depicted as a dashed line and a dot. VHF air routes are black and NDB air routes are green.

This is an uncontrolled GNSS RNAV route. The are called L-routes, which are low-level uncontrolled fixed RNAV routes

Summary:

An airway is in controlled airspace.
An air route is in uncontrolled airspace.

Air airway begins at 2200 AGL up to 17,999 ft.
An air route begins at the surface up to 17,999 ft.

Airway and air route don’t overlie each other (are not on layered top of each other). They are separate navigation “roads” within the sky that might intersect/criss cross each other.

Precession (Apparent Drift)

Aircraft Gyros and their axis will maintain their rigidity in space.

While this is true, one or two things get in the way.

While a gyro maintains rigidity in space, a point in space might be fixed, but the earth turns at a rate of 15° per hour, or, to put it another way, around 4° every 15 minutes.

This means that the gyro will gradually begin to drift away from the heading at which you set it due to the rotation of the earth.

We navigate relative to ground features, which move in relation to a point in space due to the earth’s rotation. We align the heading indicator to a point space, which doesn’t move. Therefore we have to ‘correct’ apparent drift.

With enough time, this error will add up and become significant…

Luckily there is an easy fix.

A knob on the heading indicator allows you to perform a quick ‘cage and alignment’. The heading indicator should be realigned with the magnetic heading from the compass once every 15 minutes.

And something is interesting to note about apparent drift.

The greater your latitude (or, the closer to the North or south pole you go), the more significant this error becomes.

Magnetic Dip

Magnetic dip creates the most substantial errors in a compass. As you get closer to the North or South Pole, magnetic flux lines point downwards towards the poles, and your compass magnets dip towards the low side of a turn. When magnetic dip is pronounced, it’s difficult to get actual readings. This error isn’t much of a problem near the equator, where your compass points more or less horizontally and magnetic dip isn’t a concern.

Acceleration And Deceleration Error

Another major problem with magnetic compasses in airplanes is acceleration error. In the Northern Hemisphere, as you accelerate, your compass will show a turn to the North. And as you decelerate, your compass will show a turn to the South. When the speed stabilizes, the compass returns to normal. This error is greatest on East or West headings.

Use the acronym ANDS: “Accelerate-North, Decelerate-South.”

Turning Errors

During a turn from a Northerly heading, the compass briefly indicates a turn in the opposite direction. As for aircraft turning from a Southerly heading, the compass indicates a turn in the correct direction, but at a faster rate than is actually being turned.

Use the acronym NOSE: “North-Opposite, South-Exaggerated.”

From the Ground Up page 295

Light beams refract (change direction) as they pass from one medium to another, as from air to water.

Water slows the passage of light and causes it to bend. This causes objects, terrain, lights to appear lower than their actual elevation relative to the airplane.

The turn coordinator displays Roll and Yaw; whereas, the turn and bank indicator displays Yaw only.

Wing and Ball at the same direction: Slipping turn

Wing and Ball different directions: Skidding turn

Wing either to the right or left and ball centered: coordinated turn

In this example we are in a right turn. The wing is banked to the right with an indication of excessive use of right rudder.

On the ground you can ignore the slip/skid ball.

Wing and Ball at the same direction: Slipping turn

Wing and Ball different directions: Skidding turn

Wing either to the right or left and ball centered: coordinated turn

CAR 703.88 Flight Crew Member Qualifications

(1) Subject to subsections (6) and (7), no air operator shall permit a person to act and no person shall act as a flight crew member in an aircraft unless the person

(a) holds the licence and ratings required by Part IV;

(b) within the previous 90 days, has completed at least three take-offs and three landings

(i) where a type rating for that aircraft is required, in an aircraft of that type, or in a flight simulator representing that type of aircraft that has been approved by the Minister under Subpart 6 of Part VI for take-off and landing qualifications, or

(ii) where a type rating for that aircraft is not required, in an aircraft of that category and class, or in a flight simulator representing that category and class of aircraft that has been approved by the Minister under Subpart 6 of Part VI for take-off and landing qualifications;

(c) has successfully completed a pilot proficiency check or competency check for that type of aircraft, the validity period of which has not expired, in accordance with the Commercial Air Service Standards as follows:

(i) in the case of the pilot-in-command of a multi-engined aircraft or of a single-engined aeroplane that is operated in accordance with subsection 703.22(2), a pilot proficiency check for that type of aircraft,

(ii) in the case of the pilot-in-command of a single-engined helicopter, a pilot proficiency check on one of the types of single-engined helicopters operated by the air operator,

(iii) in the case of the second-in-command of a multi-engined aircraft, a pilot proficiency check or a competency check for that type of aircraft, and

(iv) in the case of the pilot-in-command of a single-engined aeroplane that is not operated in accordance with subsection 703.22(2), a competency check for that type of aircraft; and

(d) has fulfilled the requirements of the air operator’s ground and flight training program.

(2) An air operator may group similar aeroplanes as a single type for purposes of the pilot proficiency check referred to in paragraph (1)(c) if the air operator

(a) is authorized to do so in its air operator certificate; and

(b) complies with the Commercial Air Service Standards.

(3) No person shall act as the pilot-in-command of an aircraft with a person other than a flight crew member on board in night VFR flight unless the person acting as the pilot-in-command holds an instrument rating for that class of aircraft.

(4) No air operator shall permit a person to act and no person shall act as the pilot-in-command of an aircraft with passengers on board unless the person has acquired, prior to designation as pilot-in-command, the following flight time on that type and basic model of aircraft and in the pilot-in-command position:

(a) in the case of a single-engined aeroplane or a helicopter, five hours; or

(b) in the case of a multi-engined aeroplane, 15 hours.

(5) The flight time required by subsection (4) may be reduced by one hour for each take-off and landing completed, up to a maximum of 50 per cent.

(6) An air operator may permit a person to act and a person may act as a flight crew member in an aircraft if the person does not meet the requirements set out in paragraphs (1)(b) to (d) if the air operator

(a) is authorized to do so in its air operator certificate; and

(b) complies with the Commercial Air Service Standards.

(7) Subparagraph (1)(c)(iv) does not apply in the case of a chief pilot who acts as pilot-in-command of a single-engined aeroplane that is not operated in accordance with subsection 703.22(2).

Transport of Passengers in Single-engined Aircraft

703.22 (1) Subject to subsection (2), no air operator shall operate a single-engined aircraft with passengers on board in IFR flight or in night VFR flight.

(2) An air operator may operate a single-engined aircraft with passengers on board in IFR flight or in night VFR flight if the air operator

(a) is authorized to do so in its air operator certificate; and

(b) complies with the Commercial Air Service Standards.

Maximum Flight Time

700.27 (1) An air operator shall not assign flight time to a flight crew member, and a flight crew member shall not accept such an assignment, if the member’s total flight time will, as a result, exceed

(a) 112 hours in any 28 consecutive days;

(b) 300 hours in any 90 consecutive days;

(c) 1,000 hours in any 365 consecutive days; or

(d) in the case of a single-pilot operation, 8 hours in any 24 consecutive hours.

(2) For the purpose of subsection (1), a flight crew member’s flight time includes

(a) the flight time accumulated from other flight operations; and

(b) the total flight time of a flight with an augmented flight crew.

CAR 604.98 

(1) No private operator shall assign flight time to a flight crew member, and no flight crew member shall accept such an assignment, if the flight crew member’s total flight time in all flights conducted under this Subpart, Part IV or Part VII would, as a result, exceed

(a) 1,200 hours in a period of 12 consecutive months;

(b) 300 hours in a period of 90 consecutive days;

(c) 120 hours in a period of 30 consecutive days; or

(d) 8 hours in a period of 24 consecutive hours, if the assignment is for a single-pilot IFR flight.

Night and IMC Flights

702.42 (1) No person shall operate an aircraft at night unless the aircraft is equipped with

(a) at least one landing light; and

(b) if the aircraft is operated in icing conditions, a means of illumination or other means to detect the formation of ice.

(2) No person shall operate a multi-engined aircraft in IMC unless the aircraft is equipped with

(a) two generators or two alternators, each of which is driven by a separate engine or by a rotor drive train; and

(b) two independent sources of energy, at least one of which is not a battery, and each of which is able to drive all flight instruments requiring a source of energy and is installed so that the failure of one instrument or one source of energy will affect neither the energy supply to the remaining instruments nor the other source of energy.

Additional Equipment for Single-pilot Operations

702.43 No air operator shall operate an aircraft on a single-pilot operation in IFR flight unless the aircraft is equipped with

(a) an auto-pilot that is capable of operating the aircraft controls to maintain flight and manoeuvre the aircraft about the lateral and longitudinal axes;

(b) a headset with a boom microphone or equivalent and a transmit button on the control column; and

(c) a chart holder that is equipped with a light and that is placed in an easily readable position.

The max flight time and duty times are different for Commercial Operators vs Medevac

Commercial Operator General Maximum Flight Time

700.27 (1) An air operator shall not assign flight time to a flight crew member, and a flight crew member shall not accept such an assignment, if the member’s total flight time will, as a result, exceed

(a) 112 hours in any 28 consecutive days;

(b) 300 hours in any 90 consecutive days;

(c) 1,000 hours in any 365 consecutive days; or

(d) in the case of a single-pilot operation, 8 hours in any 24 consecutive hours.

(2) For the purpose of subsection (1), a flight crew member’s flight time includes

(a) the flight time accumulated from other flight operations; and

(b) the total flight time of a flight with an augmented flight crew.

Commercial Operator General Maximum Flight Duty Period

700.28 (1) An air operator shall not assign a flight duty period to a flight crew member, and a flight crew member shall not accept such an assignment, if the flight duty period exceeds the maximum flight duty period set out in this section.

(2) If the average duration of all scheduled flights is less than 30 minutes, the maximum period of a flight duty period that begins during a period set out in column 1 of the table to this subsection is the number of hours set out in column 2, 3 or 4, according to the number of flights scheduled during the flight duty period.

(4) If the average duration of all scheduled flights is 50 minutes or more, the maximum period of a flight duty period that begins during a period set out in column 1 of the table to this subsection shall not exceed the number of hours set out in column 2, 3 or 4, according to the number of flights scheduled during the flight duty period.

Medical Evacuation Medevac Maximum Flight Time

700.103 (1) An air operator shall not assign a flight crew member for flight time, and a flight crew member shall not accept such an assignment, if the member’s total flight time will, as a result, exceed

(a) if the flight is conducted under Subpart 4 or 5 using an aircraft other than a helicopter, 40 hours in any 7 consecutive days;

(b) if the flight is conducted under Subpart 3, or is conducted using a helicopter, 60 hours in any 7 consecutive days;

(c) 120 hours in any 30 consecutive days or, in the case of a flight crew member on call, 100 hours in any 30 consecutive days;

(d) 300 hours in any 90 consecutive days;

(e) 1,200 hours in any 365 consecutive days; or

(f) in the case of a single-pilot operation, 8 hours in any 24 consecutive hours.

(2) For the purpose of subsection (1), a flight crew member’s flight time includes

(a) the flight time accumulated from other flight operations; and

(b) the total flight time of a flight with an augmented flight crew.

Medical Evacuation Medevac Maximum Flight Duty Period

700.104 An air operator shall not assign a flight duty period to a flight crew member, and a flight crew member shall not accept such an assignment, if the flight duty period exceeds 14 hours.

Medical Evacuation Medevac Rest Period — General

700.116 (1) An air operator shall provide a flight crew member, at the end of a flight duty period, with a rest period of 10 hours plus the travel time to and from the place where the rest period is taken.

(2) An air operator shall provide a flight crew member with advance notice of the member’s rest period and its duration.

As carburetor heat is applied, the manifold pressure will decrease and the mixture enriches initially. This occurs because the hot air entering the carburetor is less dense than the cold air, leading to a richer fuel-air mixture. As the ice melts and clears, engine power should gradually return to normal, and engine smoothness should improve.

Constant Speed Propellers and Their Function

A constant speed propeller is designed to maintain a fixed RPM regardless of changes in the aircraft’s flight conditions (such as altitude or airspeed) or power settings. This is achieved by automatically adjusting the pitch of the propeller blades. The constant speed mechanism ensures that the engine operates at optimal RPM, improving efficiency, performance, and fuel consumption.

There are two main types of constant speed propellers: one that relies on counterweights and the other that uses a hydraulic (or hydromatic) system.

1) Counterweight Constant Speed Propellers

Operation:

A counterweight constant speed propeller relies on a mechanical system with counterweights and springs to control the pitch of the propeller blades.

Inside the hub of the propeller, there is a spring-loaded mechanism that adjusts the blade angle in response to changes in oil pressure sent by the governor.

Oil pressure increases (when engine speed drops) to move the blades to a fine pitch (lower angle), which increases RPM.

Oil pressure decreases (when engine speed increases) to move the blades to a coarse pitch (higher angle), reducing RPM and preventing engine over-speed.

Loss of Oil Pressure during Engine Failure:

In the event of engine failure, particularly during a loss of oil pressure, the counterweight system causes the blades to move to a full coarse pitch position.

In a coarse pitch, the blades are angled steeply, which generates more drag, reduces RPM, and allows the engine to operate at a lower power output.

The propeller blades stop turning or slow down significantly and become streamlined with the airflow, minimizing drag.

This automatic shift to a full coarse pitch position is designed to reduce drag on the engine and aircraft, which is beneficial in situations like engine failure or power loss.

Purpose and Use:

This type of propeller is typically found in twin-engine aircraft. When one engine fails, the increased drag due to the coarse pitch helps reduce the load on the remaining engine and minimizes the risk of further mechanical issues.

By streamlining the blades, drag is minimized, and the aircraft’s glide performance is optimized during engine-out situations.

2) Hydromatic Constant Speed Propellers

Operation:

A hydromatic constant speed propeller relies on hydraulic or oil pressure to change the blade pitch. This system is more complex and precise compared to the counterweight system.

The hydraulic mechanism in the hub uses oil to adjust the blades to the required pitch. The oil pressure is regulated by the propeller governor, which monitors the engine’s RPM and adjusts the pitch to maintain the desired speed.

When oil pressure is high, the propeller blades are set to a fine pitch (lower angle), which allows the engine to produce more power for climbing or high-speed cruising.

When oil pressure is low, the blades are set to a coarse pitch (higher angle), which reduces RPM and prevents over-speeding at lower power settings.

Loss of Oil Pressure during Engine Failure:

If oil pressure is lost (as might happen during an engine failure), the hydraulic system will fail to adjust the blade pitch as normal.

In this case, the propeller blades will automatically move to a full fine pitch position.

In fine pitch, the blades are set at a shallow angle, providing less resistance against the air.

This allows the engine to develop the most power possible under the circumstances, as the fine pitch reduces drag and enables the engine to run at its maximum RPM.

By allowing the engine to produce maximum RPM with minimal resistance, the aircraft can achieve the best performance during an emergency, such as maximizing the available power in case of an engine failure.

Purpose and Use:

Hydromatic propellers are commonly used in single-engine aircraft.

In the event of an engine failure, setting the propeller to fine pitch helps the aircraft maintain the highest possible engine power and best possible glide performance, since the fine pitch setting reduces drag and allows the engine to operate more efficiently with the available power.

Summary of Differences:

Counterweight Propeller:

Loss of oil pressure → Propeller moves to full coarse pitch.

Propeller blades stop turning or align with the airflow, reducing drag.

Typically used in twin-engine aircraft, where minimizing drag is important during engine failure.

Hydromatic Propeller:

Loss of oil pressure → Propeller moves to full fine pitch.

Blades are set at a shallow angle to produce maximum power and minimize drag.

Typically used in single-engine aircraft, where maintaining power and performance after an engine failure is crucial.

In essence, each type of propeller is designed with a different focus:

Counterweight systems prioritize reducing drag during an engine failure.

Hydraulic systems prioritize maintaining engine power and optimizing performance when oil pressure is lost.

Pitot Tube Blockage:

A pitot tube blockage can be caused by dirt, moisture, ice or even bugs. And, of course, aborted takeoffs after a failure to note “airspeed alive” on the takeoff roll, only to later find the pitot-tube cover still on, almost mockingly. Assuming a proper preflight inspection, ensuring the pitot tube is free and clear, obstructions can still unfortunately occur during flight. There are a few possible scenarios.

Effects on the Airspeed Indicator:

Blocked pitot tube with unblocked drain hole: This would result in the airspeed indicator reading zero. Because the pitot tube would not be able to sense any airflow, and the drain hole would let any residual air out, there would be no pressure differential for the airspeed indicator to measure.

Cause of Zero Reading: A blocked pitot tube with an open drain port can cause the airspeed indicator to register zero or the last known speed. However, if both the pitot tube and the drain port are blocked, the instrument could display incorrect or erratic airspeed readings.

Blocked pitot tube with blocked drain hole: With trapped dynamic pressure, the airspeed will indicate whatever speed was showing when the blockages occurred. If the aircraft’s static port remains unblocked, pressure will increase as the aircraft descends and decrease as the aircraft climbs.

If static pressure decreases during a climb, the trapped ambient pressure with allow the diaphragm to expand, showing an increase in airspeed. Conversely, descending into denser air will force the diaphragm to close, showing a decrease in airspeed. In short, the airspeed will act in a manner similar to an altimeter.

Effects on the Altimeter and Vertical Speed Indicator:

Minimal or No Effect: The blockage of the pitot tube does not directly affect the altimeter or the vertical speed indicator (VSI), as these instruments primarily rely on static pressure, not dynamic pressure. Therefore, the aircraft’s altitude and rate of climb/descent should still be accurately displayed.

Static Port Blockage:

The static port measures the surrounding atmospheric pressure and is used by several instruments, including the altimeter, airspeed indicator, and vertical speed indicator. A blockage of the static port can cause significant issues with all of these instruments.

Vertical Speed Indicator: With no changes to static air, there can be no differential pressure for the VSI to work with. With no differential pressure, the VSI will be stuck at zero, and you’ll marvel at how well you’re maintaining altitude.

Altimeter: The altimeter will freeze at whatever altitude was indicated when the static port was blocked.

Effects on the Airspeed Indicator:

Airspeed Indicator: If the static port is blocked but the pitot tube remains clear, the ASI will function but not with accuracy. If speed remains constant, and the aircraft climbs or descends, the static pressure will result in changes to your airspeed indication. It’s the same principle as a blocked pitot tube but reversed.

A climb will result in a decrease in atmospheric pressure entering the pitot tube, which will result in the ASI indicating decreasing airspeed, causing the ASI to act as a “reverse altimeter.” As long as the pitot tube is not blocked, changes in airspeed will reflect on the ASI, but not accurately.

Blocked Static Port: The airspeed indicator relies on both static and dynamic pressure. If the static port is blocked, the airspeed indicator may behave erratically because it cannot reference the correct surrounding atmospheric pressure. The result can be a false or incorrect reading of airspeed. For instance, the airspeed could appear to increase or decrease inappropriately, even when the aircraft’s speed has remained constant.

Effects on the Altimeter:

Blocked Static Port: The altimeter measures the pressure difference between the static port and a sealed reference inside the instrument. A blockage in the static port causes the altimeter to either freeze at the last known altitude or display incorrect values, depending on the altitude changes that occur. In some cases, the altimeter may continue to show an incorrect altitude that does not correspond to the aircraft’s actual height.

Effects on the Vertical Speed Indicator:

Blocked Static Port: The vertical speed indicator measures changes in static pressure over time to determine the rate of climb or descent. If the static port is blocked, the VSI will either freeze or give erroneous readings, as it cannot detect changes in atmospheric pressure correctly.

Summary of Effects:

Pitot Tube Blockage:

Affects the airspeed indicator by causing it to freeze or show a zero reading.

No significant effect on the altimeter or vertical speed indicator.

Static Port Blockage:

Affects the airspeed indicator by causing incorrect or fluctuating readings.

Affects the altimeter by freezing or showing incorrect altitude.

Affects the vertical speed indicator by freezing or displaying inaccurate rate-of-climb data.

In the event of these blockages, pilots must rely on alternative instruments and procedures to manage flight, as the accuracy of key flight data may be compromised.

FTGU 10.5.8 Wheelbarrowing

The chief cause of wheelbarrowing on take-off is the tendency to hold the airplane on the ground with forward control pressure in order to build up a faster than normal groundspeed before rotating.

Some wheelbarrowing accidents have occurred, under strong crosswind conditions, when the pilot is using the slip method of drift correction.

FTGU 10.5.8 Wheelbarrowing

The chief cause of wheelbarrowing on take-off is the tendency to hold the airplane on the ground with forward control pressure in order to build up a faster than normal groundspeed before rotating.

Some wheelbarrowing accidents have occurred, under strong crosswind conditions, when the pilot is using the slip method of drift correction.

Virga are associated with precipitation that does not reach the ground, often happening in isolated locations on sometimes, the finest of days. However, on some occasions, virga can lead to the development of microbursts, which pose a dangerous threat to planes and aircraft.

Air Position: The position an aircraft would reach without taking into consideration the effect of wind.

DR Position: A calculated position that factors the effect of wind on an aircraft’s track

What Is Somatogravic Illusion?

Somatogravic illusions occur during rapid acceleration and deceleration in flight. This illusion usually happens when there’s limited exterior visibility, and you react to body senses over actual flight instrument readings.

As you accelerate, your body senses a pitch-up motion, so your natural reaction is to pitch down. The reverse is true for deceleration, where deceleration is felt as a pitch-down motion and your reaction is to pull back on the yoke to pitch up.

While the illusion can happen during deceleration, one of the most common examples of this illusion is from the rapid acceleration during a go-around while flying through reduced visibility or night-time conditions.

Imagine you’re flying an instrument approach. As you reach decision altitude, the runway is nowhere in sight. As you add power to go around, you rapidly transition from a slow approach to an accelerating climb-out. You look down in the cockpit to change power, flaps, and landing gear settings. In the back of your mind, you sense that you’re pitching up more than you need to, so you correct by pitching down, all without actually looking at your attitude indicator. And seconds later, you’re nose low, descending toward the ground.

A normally aspirated, propeller-driven aircraft can achieve maximum range by flying at the altitude where it achieves its best lift-to-drag ratio (L/D ratio). This altitude is typically known as the “best L/D altitude.” At this altitude, the aircraft experiences the least drag relative to the amount of lift it produces, allowing it to travel the farthest distance for a given amount of fuel.