Reference: AIM RAC 8.10 and 2.60

When aircraft are manoeuvring in the vicinity of uncontrolled aerodromes or cruising in Class G airspace, the lack of information on the movements of other aircraft operating in close proximity may occasion a potential hazard to all concerned. To alleviate this situation, all pilots are advised that:

(a)  when operating in Class G airspace, they should continuously monitor frequency 126.7 MHz whenever practicable;

(b)  position reports should be made over all NAVAIDs along the route of flight to the nearest station having air-ground communications capability. These reports should be made on frequency 126.7 MHz whenever practicable. If it is necessary to use another frequency to establish communications with the ground station, the report should also be broadcast on 126.7 MHz for information of other aircraft in the area. The report should contain present position, track, altitude, altimeter setting in use, next position and ETA;

(c)  immediately before changing altitude, commencing an instrument approach or departing IFR, pilots should broadcast their intentions on 126.7 MHz whenever practicable. Such broadcasts should contain adequate information to enable other pilots to be fully aware of the position and intentions so that they can determine if there will be any conflict with their flight paths;

(d)  at aerodromes where an MF has been designated, arriving pilots shall first broadcast their intentions on 126.7 MHz before changing to the MF. If conflicting IFR traffic becomes evident, this change should be delayed until the conflict is resolved. Pilots departing IFR should broadcast their intentions on 126.7 MHz, in addition to the MF, prior to takeoff; and

Reference: AIM RAC 2.11 STANDARD PRESSURE REGION

The standard pressure region includes all airspace over Canada at or above 18 000 feet ASL (the high-level airspace), and all low-level airspace that is outside of the lateral limit of the altimeter setting region. Within the standard pressure region the following flight procedures apply;

Except as otherwise indicated below, no person shall operate an aircraft within the standard pressure region unless the aircraft altimeter is set to standard pressure, which is 29.92 inches of mercury or 1013.2 mbs.

Departure – Prior to takeoff the pilot shall set the aircraft altimeter to the current altimeter setting of that aerodrome or, if the altimeter setting is not available, to the elevation of that aerodrome. Immediately prior to reaching the flight level at which flight is to be conducted, the altimeter shall be set to standard pressure 29.92 inches of mercury. If the planned cruising flight level is above FL 180, resetting the altimeter to 29.92 inches of mercury or 1013.2 mbs at 18 000 ft ASL is acceptable and meets the requirement of CAR 602.36.

Arrival – Prior to commencing descent with the intention to land, the altimeter shall be set to the current altimeter setting of the aerodrome of intended landing, if available. However, if a holding procedure is conducted, the altimeter shall not be set to the current aerodrome altimeter setting until immediately prior to descending below the lowest flight level at which the holding procedure is conducted. Pilots of aircraft descending from cruising flight levels above FL 180 may reset altimeters to the current altimeter setting of the aerodrome of intended landing when approaching FL 180 provided no holding or cruise level flight below FL 180 is to be made or anticipated.

Transition – CAR 602.37 – Altimeter Setting and Operating Procedures in Transition between Regions, specifies that except as otherwise authorized by ATC, aircraft progressing from one region to another shall make the change in the altimeter setting while within the standard pressure region prior to entering, or after leaving, the altimeter setting region. If the transition is to be made into the altimeter setting region while in level cruising flight, the pilot should obtain the current altimeter setting from the nearest station along the route of flight as far as practical before reaching the point at which the transition is to be made. When climbing from the altimeter setting region into the standard pressure region, pilots shall set their altimeters to standard pressure (29.92 inches of mercury or 1013.2 mbs) immediately after entering the standard pressure region. When descending into the altimeter setting region, pilots shall set their altimeters to the appropriate station altimeter setting immediately prior to descending into the altimeter setting region. Normally, the pilot will receive the appropriate altimeter setting as part of the ATC clearance prior to descent. If it is not incorporated in the clearance, it should be requested by the pilot.

At or below 6,000 feet: 200 knots

Above 6,000 ft up to and including 14,000 ft: 230 knots

Above 14,000 feet: 265 knots

Means any frost, ice, slush or snow that adheres to the critical surfaces of an aircraft.

AIM RAC 3.4.1

Reference: CARs 605.26 Use of Passenger Safety Belts and Restraint Systems

(1) Where the pilot-in-command or the in-charge flight attendant directs that safety belts be fastened, every passenger who is not an infant shall
(a) ensure that the passenger’s safety belt, including any shoulder harness, or restraint system is properly adjusted and securely fastened;
(b) if responsible for an infant for which no child restraint system is provided, hold the infant securely in the passenger’s arms; and
(c) if responsible for a person who is using a child restraint system, ensure that the person is properly secured.
(2) No passenger shall be responsible for more than one infant.

Use of Crew Member Safety Belts

CARs 605.27

(1) Subject to subsection (2), the crew members on an aircraft shall be seated at their stations with their safety belts, including any shoulder harness, fastened

(a) during take-off and landing;

(b) at any time that the pilot-in-command directs; and

(c) in the case of crew members who are flight attendants, at any time that the in-charge flight attendant so directs pursuant to paragraph 605.25(4)(b).

(2) Where the pilot-in-command directs that safety belts be fastened by illuminating the safety belt sign, a crew member is not required to comply with paragraph (1)(b)

(a) during movement of the aircraft on the surface or during flight, if the crew member is performing duties relating to the safety of the aircraft or of the passengers on board;

(b) where the aircraft is experiencing light turbulence, if the crew member is a flight attendant and is performing duties relating to the passengers on board; or

(c) if the crew member is occupying a crew rest facility during cruise flight and the restraint system for that facility is properly adjusted and securely fastened.

(3) The pilot-in-command shall ensure that at least one pilot is seated at the flight controls with safety belt, including any shoulder harness, fastened during flight time.

RVR 5000 is 1 SM

RVR 2600 is 1/2 SM

RVR 1200 is 1/4 SM

RVR 600 is 1/8 SM

Reference: CAR 605.31 Oxygen Requirements for Pressurized Aircraft

All crew members and 10 per cent of passengers and, in any case, no less than one passenger.

(a) Entire period of flight exceeding 30 minutes at cabin-pressure-altitudes above 10,000 feet ASL but not exceeding 13,000 feet ASL

(b) Entire period of flight at cabin-pressure-altitudes above 13,000 feet ASL

Reference CARs 605.32

(1) Where an aircraft is operated at cabin-pressure-altitudes above 10,000 feet ASL but not exceeding 13,000 feet ASL, each crew member shall wear an oxygen mask and use supplemental oxygen for any part of the flight at those altitudes that is more than 30 minutes in duration.

(2) Where an aircraft is operated at cabin-pressure-altitudes above 13,000 feet ASL, each person on board the aircraft shall wear an oxygen mask and use supplemental oxygen for the duration of the flight at those altitudes.

(3) The pilot at the flight controls of an aircraft shall use an oxygen mask if

(a) the aircraft is not equipped with quick-donning oxygen masks and is operated at or above flight level 250; or

(b) the aircraft is equipped with quick-donning oxygen masks and is operated above flight level 410.

Reference: CARs 605.34 (3)

No person shall operate an aircraft unless the cockpit voice recorder is operated continuously from the time at which electrical power is first provided to the recorder before the flight to the time at which electrical power is removed from the recorder after the flight.

Reference: From the Ground Up

The speed of sound varies with temperature. Under standard temperature conditions of 15 °C, the speed of sound at sea level is 661 knots. At 40,000 feet, where the temperature is –55 °C, the speed of sound decreases to 574 knots. In high­ speed flight and/or high-altitude flight, the measurement of speed is expressed in terms of a “Mach number”—the ratio of the true airspeed of the aircraft to the speed of sound in the same atmospheric conditions. An aircraft traveling at the speed of sound is traveling at Mach 1.0. Aircraft speed regimes are defined approximately as follows: 

Subsonic—Mach numbers below 0.75 

Transonic—Mach numbers from 0.75 to 1.20 

Supersonic—Mach numbers from 1.20 to 5.00 

Hypersonic—Mach numbers above 5.00 

CAR 602.62 Life Preservers and Flotation Devices

(1) No person shall conduct a take-off or a landing on water in an aircraft or operate an aircraft over water beyond a point where the aircraft could reach shore in the event of an engine failure, unless a life preserver, individual flotation device or personal flotation device is carried for each person on board.

(2) No person shall operate a land aeroplane, gyroplane, helicopter or airship at more than 50 nautical miles from shore unless a life preserver is carried for each person on board.

(3) No person shall operate a balloon at more than two nautical miles from shore unless a life preserver, individual flotation device or personal flotation device is carried for each person on board.

(4) Subject to subsection (5), for aircraft other than balloons, every life preserver, individual flotation device and personal flotation device referred to in this section shall be stowed in a position that is easily accessible to the person for whose use it is provided, when that person is seated.

(5) In cases where infant life preservers are carried on board an aircraft operated with flight attendants on board, the infant life preservers may be stowed in bulk in a location that is easily accessible to the flight attendants if

(a) the location is adjacent to a ditching emergency exit and is clearly marked as the stowage location for infant life preservers; and

(b) the operator has established procedures that require flight attendants to distribute an infant life preserver to each passenger responsible for an infant when preparing for a ditching.

602.63 Life Rafts and Survival Equipment — Flights over Water

(1) No person shall operate over water a single-engined aeroplane, or a multi-engined aeroplane that is unable to maintain flight with any engine failed, at more than 100 nautical miles, or the distance that can be covered in 30 minutes of flight at the cruising speed filed in the flight plan or flight itinerary, whichever distance is the lesser, from a suitable emergency landing site unless life rafts are carried on board and are sufficient in total rated capacity to accommodate all of the persons on board.

(2) Subject to subsection (3), no person shall operate over water a multi-engined aeroplane that is able to maintain flight with any engine failed at more than 200 nautical miles, or the distance that can be covered in 60 minutes of flight at the cruising speed filed in the flight plan or flight itinerary, whichever distance is the lesser, from a suitable emergency landing site unless life rafts are carried on board and are sufficient in total rated capacity to accommodate all of the persons on board.

(3) A person may operate over water a transport category aircraft that is an aeroplane, at up to 400 nautical miles, or the distance that can be covered in 120 minutes of flight at the cruising speed filed in the flight plan or flight itinerary, whichever distance is the lesser, from a suitable emergency landing site without the life rafts referred to in subsection (2) being carried on board.

(4) No person shall operate over water a single-engined helicopter, or a multi-engined helicopter that is unable to maintain flight with any engine failed, at more than 25 nautical miles, or the distance that can be covered in 15 minutes of flight at the cruising speed filed in the flight plan or flight itinerary, whichever distance is the lesser, from a suitable emergency landing site unless life rafts are carried on board and are sufficient in total rated capacity to accommodate all of the persons on board.

(5) No person shall operate over water a multi-engined helicopter that is able to maintain flight with any engine failed at more than 50 nautical miles, or the distance that can be covered in 30 minutes of flight at the cruising speed filed in the flight plan or flight itinerary, whichever distance is the lesser, from a suitable emergency landing site unless life rafts are carried on board and are sufficient in total rated capacity to accommodate all of the persons on board.

(6) The life rafts referred to in this section shall be

(a) stowed so that they are easily accessible for use in the event of a ditching;

(b) installed in conspicuously marked locations near an exit; and

(c) equipped with an attached survival kit, sufficient for the survival on water of each person on board the aircraft, given the geographical area, the season of the year and anticipated seasonal climatic variations, that provides a means for

(i) providing shelter,

(ii) providing or purifying water, and

(iii) visually signalling distress.

(7) Where a helicopter is required to carry life rafts pursuant to subsection (4) or (5), no person shall operate the helicopter over water having a temperature of less than 10^oC unless

(a) a helicopter passenger transportation suit system that conforms to paragraph 551.407(c) of the Airworthiness Manual is provided for each passenger on board;

(b) a helicopter crew member transportation suit system is provided for each crew member on board; and

(c) the pilot-in-command directs all persons on board to wear their helicopter transportation suit system.

(8) Every person who has been directed to wear a helicopter transportation suit system pursuant to paragraph (7)(c) shall wear that suit system.

(9) Paragraph (7)(a) does not apply if

(a) the flight is necessary in order to respond to a medical emergency or any other emergency that is a threat to the safety of persons and

(i) the helicopter is a transport category rotorcraft, in respect of which a type certificate has been issued, that meets the requirements of Chapter 529 — Transport Category Rotorcraft of the Airworthiness Manualthat are applicable to Category A rotorcraft,

(ii) there is insufficient time before the flight to acquire a helicopter passenger transportation suit system of the appropriate size for each passenger, and

(iii) there is a crew member in the cabin for the duration of the flight who is trained to assist passengers in an emergency evacuation in the event of a landing in water and who is able to come to the assistance of passengers; or

(b) there is a medical reason that prevents a passenger from wearing a helicopter passenger transportation suit system.

(10) A passenger who is not wearing a helicopter passenger transportation suit system for a reason referred to in subparagraph (9)(a)(ii) or paragraph (9)(b) shall be provided with a life preserver and the pilot-in-command shall direct the passenger to wear the life preserver for the duration of the flight if they are physically and medically able to do so.

Reference CARs 602.63 Life Rafts and Survival Equipment — Flights over Water

(1) No person shall operate over water a single-engined aeroplane, or a multi-engined aeroplane that is unable to maintain flight with any engine failed, at more than 100 nautical miles, or the distance that can be covered in 30 minutes of flight at the cruising speed filed in the flight plan or flight itinerary, whichever distance is the lesser, from a suitable emergency landing site unless life rafts are carried on board and are sufficient in total rated capacity to accommodate all of the persons on board.

(2) Subject to subsection (3), no person shall operate over water a multi-engined aeroplane that is able to maintain flight with any engine failed at more than 200 nautical miles, or the distance that can be covered in 60 minutes of flight at the cruising speed filed in the flight plan or flight itinerary, whichever distance is the lesser, from a suitable emergency landing site unless life rafts are carried on board and are sufficient in total rated capacity to accommodate all of the persons on board.

(3) A person may operate over water a transport category aircraft that is an aeroplane, at up to 400 nautical miles, or the distance that can be covered in 120 minutes of flight at the cruising speed filed in the flight plan or flight itinerary, whichever distance is the lesser, from a suitable emergency landing site without the life rafts referred to in subsection (2) being carried on board.

Induced Drag is an inevitable consequence of lift and is produced by the passage of an aerofoil (e.g. wing or tailplane) through the air. Air flowing over the top of a wing tends to flow inwards because the decreased pressure over the top surface is less than the pressure outside the wing tip. Below the wing, the air flows outwards because the pressure below the wing is greater than that outside the wing tip. The direct consequence of this, as far as the wing tips are concerned, is that there is a continual spilling of air upwards around the wing

Pilots may experience situations where traffic, weather or other delays result in concern about the aircraft’s fuel state. The term MINIMUM FUEL describes a situation where the aircraft’s fuel supply has reached a state where the flight is committed to land at a specific aerodrome and no additional delay can be accepted. The pilot should advise ATC as soon as possible that a MINIMUM FUEL condition exists. This is not an emergency situation, but merely an advisory that indicates an emergency is possible should any undue delay occur.

A minimum fuel advisory does not imply an ATC traffic priority; however, ATC special flight handling procedures are as follows:

(a)  Be alert for any occurrence or situation that might delay the aircraft;

(b)  Respond to the declaration and keep the pilot informed of any anticipated delay as soon as you become aware, using the following phraseology:
ROGER or

ROGER NO DELAY EXPECTED or ROGER EXPECT (delay information).

(c)  Inform the next sector or unit of the minimum fuel status of the aircraft and

(d)  Record the information in the unit log, reduce unnecessary radio transmissions and ensure appropriate responses; use of internationally recognized fuel-related phraseology among pilots and controllers is essential.

Traffic priority is given to a pilot who declares an emergency for fuel by broadcasting MAYDAY MAYDAY MAYDAY FUEL. Use of standardized pilot phraseology distinguishes minimum fuel from a fuel emergency, assuring pilot intent without further verification

Reference From the Ground Up

Complete blockage of the pitot pressure source will trap pressure in the airspeed indicator and turn it into an altimeter. If the pitot pressure source is not completely blocked or if the system lacks integrity (has some air leaks), the airspeed indicator needle will rotate back to O.

Elementary Work

706.10 No air operator shall authorize a person to perform, without supervision, a task that is elementary work set out in the Aircraft Equipment and Maintenance Standards unless the person

(a) has satisfactorily completed training for the task under a training program required by section 706.12; and

(b) has previously performed that task under the direct supervision of the holder of an aircraft maintenance engineer (AME) licence or a training organization approved pursuant to Subpart 3 of Part IV.

Type II and type IV fluids should not be used on aircraft with a rotation speed (VR) of less than 100 knots. Below this speed, some of the fluid may not completely flow away and may cause some degradation of performance.

Reference: AIM RAC 9.13

VFR Flight in Class C Airspace

601.08 (1) Subject to subsection (2), no person operating a VFR aircraft shall enter Class C airspace unless the person receives a clearance to enter from the appropriate air traffic control unit before entering the airspace.

(2) The pilot-in-command of a VFR aircraft that is not equipped with radiocommunication equipment capable of two-way communication with the appropriate air traffic control unit may, during daylight in VMC, enter Class C airspace if the pilot-in-command receives authorization to enter from the appropriate air traffic control unit before entering the airspace.

(3) Class C airspace becomes Class E airspace when the appropriate air traffic control unit is not in operation.

AIM RAC 2.8.3

AIM RAC 2.8.6 Class F Airspace

Class F airspace is airspace of defined dimensions within which activities must be confined because of their nature, and within which limitations may be imposed upon aircraft operations that are not a part of those activities.

Class F airspace may be restricted airspace, advisory airspace, military operations areas, or danger areas and can be controlled airspace, uncontrolled airspace, or a combination of both.

Unless otherwise specified, the rules for the surrounding airspace apply in areas of Class F airspace, no matter if these areas are active or inactive.

Class F airspace is designated in the DAH (TP 1820) and published on the appropriate aeronautical charts.

Reference: CARs 600.01

Large aircraft means an aeroplane having a maximum permissible take-off weight in excess of 5 700 kg (12,566 pounds)

The purposes of the diffuser or inlet are first to bring air smoothly into the engine, second to slow the fluid and to increase the pressure, and third to deliver a uniform flow to the compressor.

Reference: AIM COM 5.4.2.2

Reference From the ground up

Accumulators provide 4 main functions:

1. They store pressure.
2. They provide supplementary pressure.
3. They reduce system spikes.
4. The maintain system pressure 

Reference: AIM AGA 7.6.4.3

AIM COM 4.7 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) 

The DME slant range error is the greatest when the airplane is at a high altitude close to or over the ground station. Moreover, slant range error also affects groundspeed and time-to-staion displays when you are close to the station.

AIM COM 4.8 TACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION (TACAN)

Tactical air navigation aid (TACAN) is a navigation aid (NAVAID) used primarily by the military for en route, non-precision approaches (NPAs) and other military applications. It provides azimuth in the form of radials and slant distance in nautical miles (NM) from the ground station. The system operates in the ultrahigh frequency (UHF) range with the frequencies identified by channel number.

TACAN users may obtain distance information from a distance measuring equipment (DME)  that is paired with the VHF omnidirectional range (VOR). This TACAN paired channel number is published in the Canada Flight Supplement (CFS) for every VOR/DME facility.

CAUTION:
Only DME information is being received by the TACAN avionics. Any apparent radial information obtained through the TACAN avionics from a VOR/DME facility can only be false signals.

When a runway is placed on CAT II/III status, the standby power system becomes the primary source of electrical power, and commercial power will revert to the standby power source status.

In this way the backup power source, i.e. commercial power, is available without interruption if the standby power supply should fail.

At airports with CAT II/III runways, a switching arrangement is installed in the control tower enabling the controller to select standby or commercial power, at will.

One of the controller’s actions when placing a runway on CAT II/III status is the selection of standby power as the primary source of electrical power.

When an airplane travels less than the speed of sound, the air ahead of it actually begins to flow out of the way before the plane reaches it. The pressure waves created by the airplane passing through the air end up being smooth and gradual.

But as an airplane reaches the speed of sound and catches up to its own pressure waves, the air ahead of it receives no warning of the plane’s approach. The airplane plows through the air, creating a shock wave. As air flows through the shock wave, its pressure, density, and temperature all increase—sharply and abruptly.

Reference: Human Factors for aviation basic handbook (HFABH)

Another way the same answer could be worded is:

The low speed tape will increase and the high speed tape will decrease.

When you climb at a fixed MACh the IAS and TAS will decrease. The speed of sound slows down in colder air which is usually at a higher altitude.

This is how I think through this answer. From High to Low look out below. If you don't reset your altimeter to the new lower altimeter setting. Our aircraft will be flying closer to the ground due to the reduced outside pressure.

In this picture below we are flying at 18,000 ft.

In area 1 our altimeter is A30.02 and our indicated altitude matches our true altitude.

In area 2 our altimeter is still set to A30.02 even though the pressure dropped to A29.92. Our indicated altitude will still read 18,000 feet but our true altitude will be closer to the earth which is a hazard.

Use the loading chart to input the ARM's into the table. For the fuel: subtract the weight of 30 imp gallons which is 234 lbs.

Divide the total moment by the total weight. Then inout the arm into the %MAC formula.

Reference: From the Ground Up

Reference: From the Ground Up

Clamshell/ Bucket/Target Thrust Reverser uses hot and cold air for reverse thrust.

Cascade/Cold Stream Thrust Reverser uses only cold air for reverse thrust.

Clamshell/ Bucket/Target Thrust Reverser uses hot and cold air for reverse thrust.

Cascade/Cold Stream Thrust Reverser uses only cold air for reverse thrust.

On aircraft powered by turbine engines, bleed air from the engine compressor section is used to pressurize the cabin.

The compressor bleeds are valves in the engine's compressor section that open when the engine is operating at low RPM or when a sudden acceleration is demanded. The valves, when open, allow built-up air to escape, reducing the pressure at the rear of the compressor. This reduces the risk of a compressor stall.

An encounter with an engine stall is associated with one or more loud bangs. The bangs are similar to that of a shotgun being fired.

It may also cause fluctuations in engine parameters, cause abnormally high vibrations, and can even prompt the Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) to rise. From outside the aircraft, flames may also be visible from the exhaust, and, at times, from the engine's intakes.

As soon as the engine stalls, the pilot must reduce the thrust to idle by moving the thrust lever(s) of the affected engine(s) back. This should reduce the back pressure and help to stabilize the airflow. Once the engine(s) is/are at idle, the engine parameters must be checked to see if they are stable.

Reference: Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge

Most of the difficulties of transonic flight are associated with shock wave induced flow separation. Therefore, any means of delaying or alleviating the shock induced separation improves aerodynamic performance. One method is wing sweepback.

On a straight wing aircraft, the airflow strikes the wing leading edge at 90°, and its full impact produces pressure and lift.

On a sweepback wing, has the same airflow at an angle smaller than 90°. This airflow on the swept wing has the effect of persuading the wing into believing that it is flying slower than it really is; thus the formation of shock waves is delayed. Advantages of wing sweep include an increase in critical Mach number, force divergence Mach number, and the Mach number at which drag rise peaks. In other words, sweep delays the onset of compressibility effects.

The speed of an aircraft in which airflow over any part of the aircraft or structure under consideration first reaches (but does not exceed) Mach 1.0 is termed “critical Mach number” or “Mach Crit.” Thus, critical Mach number is the boundary between subsonic and transonic flight and is largely dependent on the wing and airfoil design. Critical Mach number is an important point in transonic flight. When shock waves form on the aircraft, airflow separation followed by buffet and aircraft control difficulties can occur. Shock waves, buffet, and airflow separation take place above critical Mach number. A jet aircraft typically is most efficient when cruising at or near its critical Mach number. At speeds 5–10 percent above the critical Mach number, compressibility effects begin. Drag begins to rise sharply.

A Machmeter is an instrument which provides an indication of the Mach Number(M), which is the ratio between the aircraft True Air Speed (TAS) and the local speed of sound (LSS). 

Dutch roll is a coupled lateral/directional oscillation that is usually dynamically stable but is unsafe in an aircraft because of the oscillatory nature.

Most modern swept wing aircraft have yaw dampers that automatically correct for Dutch roll by quickly adjusting the rudder.

Dihedral is the upward angle of an aircraft's wings.
It helps improve lateral stability.
This is a roll movement along the longitudinal axis.

It's important to remember that the trim tab moves opposite to the flight control. If you see the elevator trim tab pointing down, it means it is forcing the elevator up, which commands a nose up pitch attitude for a climb.

If you see the right aileron trim tab pointing down, it means it is forcing the right aileron up, and also moving the left aileron to move down, causing a bank to the right for a right turn.

How Aileron and Elevator Trim Tabs Work:

Trim tabs are small adjustable surfaces attached to the trailing edge of the primary control surfaces, such as the ailerons and the elevators, of an aircraft. They are used to reduce the pilot's workload by maintaining the aircraft's desired attitude without continuous control input. Here's a detailed explanation of how aileron and elevator trim tabs work:

1. Aileron Trim Tabs:

The aileron trim tab is located on the trailing edge of the aileron, typically on the wing. It adjusts the aileron’s effectiveness by creating a small aerodynamic force that helps maintain the desired roll attitude of the aircraft without constant input from the pilot.

How They Work:

Purpose: The main purpose of the aileron trim tab is to eliminate the need for continuous pressure on the control stick or yoke to maintain level flight or a desired bank angle.

Movement: When the pilot adjusts the aileron trim, the trim tab moves in relation to the aileron. If the aircraft is rolling to one side (i.e., the aircraft is uncoordinated or rolling due to aerodynamic forces), the pilot can adjust the aileron trim tab to counteract this roll tendency.

Effect:

If the aircraft is rolling to the right and the pilot wants to stop the roll, the right aileron trim tab can be adjusted down (or left up) to create an aerodynamic force that resists the roll.

Conversely, if the aircraft is rolling to the left, the left aileron trim tab can be adjusted down to help resist the roll, keeping the aircraft level.

Adjustment Mechanism:

Typically, the aileron trim is adjusted by a wheel or a lever in the cockpit, which mechanically or electrically moves the trim tab to create the desired amount of resistance on the aileron.

By adjusting the trim, the pilot can fine-tune the control surface so that less effort is needed to maintain straight and level flight or a constant bank angle.

2. Elevator Trim Tabs:

The elevator trim tab is located on the trailing edge of the horizontal stabilizer or elevator, and its function is to adjust the aircraft's pitch attitude.

How They Work:

Purpose: The elevator trim tab is used to relieve the pilot from constantly holding pressure on the control yoke or stick to maintain a certain pitch attitude (e.g., level flight or climb).

Movement: When the elevator trim tab is adjusted, it changes the airflow around the horizontal stabilizer, creating a force that either increases or decreases the aircraft's pitch attitude.

Effect:

If the aircraft's nose is pitched up, the pilot can adjust the trim tab downward to relieve the pressure on the yoke/stick, helping the aircraft to return to a more neutral attitude.

If the aircraft's nose is pitched down, the pilot can adjust the trim tab upward to keep the nose up and reduce the forward pressure needed on the controls.

Adjustment Mechanism:

The elevator trim can be adjusted via a wheel, knob, or lever, depending on the aircraft's design. The trim tab moves relative to the elevator, creating the necessary aerodynamic force to achieve the desired pitch attitude.

In some aircraft, especially older models, the elevator trim tab is manually adjusted, while modern aircraft often use electric or hydraulic systems to adjust the trim tab automatically.

3. Types of Trim Tabs:

Fixed Trim Tab: A fixed trim tab is simply a small piece of control surface that is set at a fixed angle to the primary control surface. It is used to create a small force that requires no further adjustment unless manually changed.

Adjustable Trim Tab: An adjustable trim tab allows the pilot to change the angle of the tab to fine-tune the aerodynamic force required to hold the desired attitude or trajectory of the aircraft.

4. Key Benefits of Trim Tabs:

Reduced Pilot Workload: Trim tabs allow pilots to relieve pressure on the control yoke or stick, especially during long flights, reducing fatigue and making it easier to maintain a steady course.

Improved Stability: Trim tabs help to counteract aerodynamic forces that cause the aircraft to deviate from its desired attitude. This can improve the overall stability of the aircraft.

Fuel Efficiency: By reducing the amount of continuous control input required, trim tabs help the aircraft maintain a steady flight attitude with minimal power, which can contribute to fuel efficiency over time.

5. Aileron vs. Elevator Trim Tabs:

Aileron Trim Tab: Primarily used to control roll, ensuring that the aircraft remains level or maintains a desired bank angle without the need for constant input from the pilot. It is particularly useful when there is asymmetric loading, such as a heavy load on one wing or a crosswind.

Elevator Trim Tab: Primarily used to control pitch, allowing the pilot to maintain the desired pitch attitude (e.g., level flight, climb, or descent) without needing to apply continuous pressure on the control stick or yoke.

The horizontal situation indicator (commonly called the HSI) is an aircraft flight instrument normally mounted below the artificial horizon in place of a conventional heading indicator. 

It combines a heading indicator with a VHF omnidirectional range-instrument landing system (VOR-ILS) display.

This reduces pilot workload by lessening the number of elements in the pilot's instrument scan to the six basic flight instruments. 

The heading indicator is usually slaved to a remote compass and the HSI is frequently interconnected with an autopilot capable of following the heading select bug and of executing an ILS approach by following the localizer and glide slope.

AIM Reference 4.10.7

SAR: 0.51 NM/lb

SAR= fuel flow/TAS (rearrange the formula).

Fuel flow = TAS/fuel flow
Fuel Flow: 186 knots/0.51
Fuel Flow: 365 lbs/hour

No reference for this one. This is one of those TC answers you just have to accept.

Human Factors For Aviation TP12863E

Note:

The Time of Useful Conciousness (TUC) or Effective Performance Time is the period of elapsed time from the interruption of normal air supply or exposure to an oxygen-poor environment until the time when the ability to function usefully is likely to be lost at which point an affected individual would no longer be capable of taking normal corrective or protective action.

Time of useful consciousness (TUC) is not the time to total unconsciousness.

The FAA handbook has slightly different numbers...

Reference: FAA Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge. Chapter 17: Aeromedical Factors.

Handbook for Civil aviation Medical Examiners

Hypoxia is an insidious killer. There is a tendency for euphoria to develop while motor skills and reasoning abilities deteriorate. The result is that in many cases the pilot may become seriously hypoxic without appreciating that there is a problem. To the observer tachypnea, cyanosis, mental confusion and loss of muscle coordination are obvious. To the pilot however, the only symptoms may be slight dyspnea, dizziness, fatigue, decreasing vision and finally loss of muscular control. Night vision can be impaired at as low as 5000 ft. Tolerance to hypoxia varies from individual to individual and from time to time. Tolerance can be increased by continual exposure to high altitudes and varies with the level of the hemoglobin and the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood. It is decreased by fatigue, cold and poor physical conditioning. Even at 5,000 ft. night vision is decreased.

Types

Hypoxia is generally divided into four types.

Hypoxic hypoxia is due to a decrease in the oxygen available to the body such as typically occurs with altitude.

Hypemic hypoxia is caused by a reduction in the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood for any reason. It also occurs when hemoglobin is saturated by gases for which it has a higher affinity, the most common of which is carbon monoxide. This is not only produced by exhaust leaks into the cockpit but also by cigarette smoking. Carbon monoxide is a product of incomplete combustion and may be present at levels of 6-8% in the blood of a heavy smoker and such individuals may become significantly hypoxic at levels below 10,000 ft.

Stagnant hypoxia is a less common problem caused by a reduction in total cardiac output, pooling of the blood or restriction of blood flow. Heart failure, shock, continuous positive pressure breathing and Gforces in flight can create stagnant hypoxia. Local stagnant hypoxia can occur with tight and restrictive clothing or, in the cerebral circulation, in association with vasoconstriction due to respiratory alkalosis provoked by hyperventilation.

Histotoxic hypoxia refers to poisoning of the respiratory cytochrome system by chemicals such as cyanide or carbon monoxide but it can also be caused by the effects of alcohol. Needless to say a pilot in poor physical condition, recovering from a hangover and smoking while in flight can quickly become an unfortunate statistic!

AIM AIR 3.2.2 Carbon Monoxide

Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless, tasteless gas that is a product of incomplete combustion. Haemoglobin, the oxygen- carrying chemical in the blood, picks up carbon monoxide over 200 times more readily than it picks up oxygen. Thus, even minute quantities in the cockpit (often from improperly vented exhaust fumes) may result in pilot incapacitation.

The symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning are insidious. Initially, there is an inability to concentrate, thinking becomes blurred, and subsequently dizziness and headache develop. If any of these symptoms are noticed, pilots should turn off the heater, open the air ventilators and descend to a lower altitude if it is safe to do so. If oxygen is available, it should be used. If an exhaust leak is suspected, the pilot should land the aircraft as soon as possible.

Smoking is a source of carbon monoxide. Smokers carry some carbon monoxide in their blood all the time, and may have 5 to 10 percent of their haemoglobin saturated with carbon monoxide. This reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood and smokers may become hypoxic at altitudes below 10 000 ft ASL (3 050 m).

An absence of ground features, as when landing over water, darkened areas, and terrain made featureless by snow, can create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher attitude than it actually is. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will fly a lower approach.

Advisory Circular (AC) No. 700-042

What is a threat?

• A threat refers to any condition that increases the complexity of the operation;
• Threats can decrease safety margins and lead to errors;

There are two types of threats:

• External Threats – Outside of your control (weather, system errors, inadequate lighting).
• Internal (Human) Threats – Those within your control (fatigue, stress).

What is an error?

An error refers to the mistake that is made when a threat is mismanaged.

What is threat management?

• Recognizing that a threat exists.
• Developing a strategy to deal with the threat, so as not to reduce safety margins.

What is error management?

• The process of correcting an error before it becomes consequential to safety.
• To prevent future, similar errors by improving the resistance to errors in the system-depending on the threat, this can be done in two ways:
• By improving strategies to deal with threats that you cannot control,
• By fixing threats that you can control.

Examples: