Reference: AIM COM 5.4.2.2

Reference: AIM RAC 10.7

Reference: AIM RAC 8.7

Reference: AIM RAC 7.5

Reference: CAR 602 and CAP GEN page 27

Decreased performance shear (sudden airspeed drop) while on final approach requires the pilot to increase in power followed by a power decrease.

Increased performance shear (sudden airspeed increase) while on final approach requires the pilot to decrease in power followed by a power increase.

A Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI) is an essential instrument used in aircraft for navigation. It assists pilots in maintaining situational awareness, especially during complex navigational procedures. Here's a detailed explanation of what an RMI does, how it functions, and what it indicates:

1. Purpose of the Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI)

The RMI combines information from a magnetic compass or a heading indicator with navigation data received from radio navigation aids, such as VOR (VHF Omnidirectional Range) and ADF (Automatic Direction Finder). Its primary function is to provide pilots with real-time, accurate direction information relative to the aircraft's heading.

2. Components of an RMI

An RMI typically consists of:

Compass Card: A rotating card that shows the aircraft’s current magnetic heading. The card rotates automatically to align with the magnetic heading indicated by the gyroscopic heading system.

Needles: The RMI typically has two needles. One needle usually points to a VOR station, and the other points to an NDB (Non-Directional Beacon). Each needle is color-coded for easy identification.

Indicator Window: Displays the aircraft's heading at the top of the compass card.

3. Functionality of an RMI

Magnetic Heading: The compass card is driven by the aircraft's heading reference system and rotates to always indicate the aircraft's current magnetic heading at the top of the display.

Navigation Aid Indication: The RMI shows the bearing to specific radio navigation stations:

VOR Bearing: One needle points directly to the VOR station. This provides the magnetic bearing from the aircraft to the station.

ADF Bearing: Another needle points towards an NDB, indicating the direction to the beacon relative to the aircraft’s current position.

4. Types of Needles and Their Indications

Single-Bar Needle: This needle typically points to a VOR station. It shows the magnetic direction to the station from the aircraft, allowing the pilot to understand the radial or bearing to fly towards or away from.

Double-Bar Needle: Often used for the ADF or NDB bearing, it shows where the NDB is located relative to the aircraft.

5. How Pilots Use an RMI

Pilots use the RMI for:

Determining Position: By observing the bearings to two different navigational aids, pilots can pinpoint their location on a chart.

Intercepting and Tracking Courses: The RMI helps in intercepting and maintaining a course to or from a VOR station or tracking towards an NDB.

Navigational Awareness: The continuous display of the aircraft's heading along with the relative position of navigation stations helps pilots maintain a better understanding of their current navigational environment.

6. Interpretation of Indications

Aircraft Heading: The top of the RMI compass card always shows the current heading of the aircraft in degrees magnetic.

Relative Bearings:

If the needle points directly at the top (360°), the station is directly ahead.

If it points to the bottom (180°), the station is directly behind.

Any other indication shows the station's direction relative to the aircraft’s nose.

7. Practical Application

For instance, if the aircraft is on a heading of 090° (due east) and the VOR needle points to 270°, this indicates that the VOR station is directly behind the aircraft. If the needle points to 045°, the station is ahead to the right, at a 45° angle.

8. Benefits of Using an RMI

Simplified Interpretation: The RMI provides an intuitive and continuous display of heading and bearing information.

Enhanced Situational Awareness: Pilots can easily determine if they are flying towards or away from a station without needing to interpret complex directional data.

Reduced Workload: The combined heading and navigation information simplifies navigation tasks and reduces pilot workload, especially during critical phases of flight such as approach or when navigating in unfamiliar areas.

Summary

The RMI is a navigation instrument that integrates magnetic heading with real-time directional information from VOR and ADF signals, allowing pilots to visually track the bearings to or from navigation aids. By consistently updating the heading and showing the direction to navigational stations, it greatly enhances situational awareness and assists in precise navigation.

Reference: AIM COM 4.7

Reference: AIM COM 4.6

Human Factors For Aviation TP12863E

Note:

The Time of Useful Conciousness (TUC) or Effective Performance Time is the period of elapsed time from the interruption of normal air supply or exposure to an oxygen-poor environment until the time when the ability to function usefully is likely to be lost at which point an affected individual would no longer be capable of taking normal corrective or protective action.

Time of useful consciousness (TUC) is not the time to total unconsciousness.

The FAA handbook has slightly different numbers...

Reference: FAA Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge. Chapter 17: Aeromedical Factors.

Reference: AIM RAC 4.1.1

Controllers will apply a three-minute separation interval to any aircraft that takes off into the wake of a known heavy aircraft, or a light aircraft that takes off into the wake of a known medium aircraft if:

(a) the following aircraft starts its takeoff roll from an intersection or from a point further along the runway than the preceding aircraft; or

(b) the controller has reason to believe that the following aircraft will require more runway length for takeoff than the preceding aircraft.

ATC will also apply separation intervals of up to three minutes when the projected flight paths of any following aircraft will cross that of a preceding heavy aircraft.

Ice pellets imply freezing rain aloft

Reference: AIM COM 7.0

Angle of Bank = [TAS (Knots)/10] + 7

There are two parts to the instrument recency requirements:

(A) Within 24 months preceding the flight the pilot must have completed one of the following:

a. An Instrument Rating flight test;

b. A Canadian Forces Instrument Rating Flight Test;

c. A foreign IFR Proficiency Check from a Contracting State having a reciprocal licensing agreement with Canada;

d. An IPC; or

e. One of the following checks for which the validity period has not expired that included the instrument portion of:

i. a proficiency check or competency check completed under Subpart 4 of Part VI;

ii. a LOE from an approved Advanced Qualification Program (AQP) conducted by a Canadian Qualification Program Evaluator;

iii. a foreign pilot proficiency / competency check approved by a Contracting State, conducted by a foreign Check Pilot authorized to conduct IPCs for commercial and private air operators of that State, while the holder is working for hire and reward for a foreign commercial or private air operator; or

iv. A PPC conducted in accordance with the PPC schedules to the Commercial Air Services Standards in respect of the corresponding aircraft operated under Subparts 2 to 5 of Part VII.

(B) Following the first day of the 13^th month following the completion of one of the items in (A) above within six months preceding the flight have acquired six hours of instrument time and completed six instrument approaches to minima according to approved instrument approach procedures in an aircraft or Flight Simulation Training Device (FSTD) as specified in the Exemption.

Reference: AIM AGA 7.6.1

First determine the difference in current altimeter setting from standard.

27.92" - 29.92" = 2.0"

2.0" x 1000 = 2,000 ft

Second, determine what pressure altitude an aircraft in the Altimeter Setting Region would fly at:

at 17,000 ft the aircraft would fly a pressure altitude of 19,000 ft (17,000 ft + 2,000 ft).

Third, for an aircraft to fly in the Standard Pressure Region with a 1,000 ft minimum vertical separation.

An aircraft would be assigned no lower than FL200 (19,000 + 1,000).

29.92 be at 18,000 ft
28.92 be at 19,000 ft
27.92 be at 20,000 ft

Reference: AIM RAC 9.17 and CAP GEN page 27

The altimeter setting may be a local or a remote setting when so authorized on the instrument approach chart. A current altimeter setting is one provided by approved direct reading or remote equipment or by the most recent routine hourly weather report. These readings are considered current up to 90 min from the time of observation. Care should be exercised when using altimeter settings older than 60 min or when pressure has been reported as falling rapidly. In these instances, a value may be added to the published DH/MDA in order to compensate for falling pressure tendency (0.01 inches of mercury = 10-ft correction). When an authorized remote altimeter setting is used, the altitude correction shall be applied as indicated.

As long the reported ground visibility is 1/2 SM, the PIC may depart IFR.

AIM AIR 2.12.3.1

For any ice to form the OAT must be at or below freezing with the presence of visible moisture.

Rime ice commonly found in stratiform clouds is granular, opaque and pebbly and adheres to the leading edges of antennas and windshields. Rime ice forms in low temperatures with a low concentration of small super-cooled droplets. It has little tendency to spread and can easily be removed by aircraft de-icing systems.

Clear ice commonly found in cumuliform clouds is glassy, smooth and hard, and tends to spread back from the area of impingement. Clear ice forms at temperatures at or just below 0°C with a high concentration of large super-cooled droplets. It is the most serious form of icing because it adheres firmly and is difficult to remove.

Frost may form on an aircraft in flight when descent is made from below-freezing conditions to a layer of warm, moist air. In these circumstances, vision may be restricted as frost forms on the windshield or canopy.

Reference: AIM RAC 11.4.4

Reference: AIM RAC 2.10 and 2.11

Reference: AIM AGA 7.6.4.3

Reference: From the Ground Up

Steam fog forms when cold air passes over a warm water.

The water evaporates into the cold air until the cold air becomes saturated.

The excess water vapour condenses as fog. Steam fog occurs over rivers and lakes, especially during the autumn.

Freezing rain/drizzle sticks to the cold aircraft skin very fast. Ice crystals do not adhere so the conditions are improving.

For any ice to form the OAT must be at or below freezing with the presence of visible moisture.

Rime ice commonly found in stratiform clouds is granular, opaque and pebbly and adheres to the leading edges of antennas and windshields. Rime ice forms in low temperatures with a low concentration of small super-cooled droplets. It has little tendency to spread and can easily be removed by aircraft de-icing systems.

Clear ice commonly found in cumuliform clouds is glassy, smooth and hard, and tends to spread back from the area of impingement. Clear ice forms at temperatures at or just below 0°C with a high concentration of large super-cooled droplets. It is the most serious form of icing because it adheres firmly and is difficult to remove.

Frost may form on an aircraft in flight when descent is made from below-freezing conditions to a layer of warm, moist air. In these circumstances, vision may be restricted as frost forms on the windshield or canopy.

Buy Ballot's Law: When you stand with your back to the wind; the low pressure system will be to your left.

CYYZ METAR 201600Z 05020KT 1/4 SM R24L/1500FT/D SN DRSN VV007 01/M02 A2978.

VV - Vertical Visibility which means an obscured ceiling.

Draw a Compass Rose

Draw your outbound radial first. The flag shows TO the station which means we have to take the reciprocal of what is on the TOP of the VOR indicator. We want to track the 210 degree radial inbound and have set it the BOTTOM of the VOR indicator.

Draw an airplane parallel to the radial. This will help you visualize which side of the radial you are on. Since the needle is swung to the left, it indicates we are to the right side of the radial. We would have t0 turn left to catch the CDI.

Each dot of the VOR indicator represents 2 degrees. The CDI is 2 dots over. 2 x x = 4 degrees offset.

Since we are positioned to the right of the radial. 210 - 04 degrees = 206.

Calculate the Bearing From the Station

MH + RB = BTS

220 + 250 = 470 degrees

470 - 360 = 110 BTS

BFS = BTS +/- 180

110 + 180 = 290 BFS

On a compass rose draw an NDB with 290 BFS. Then draw the 080 track to the station. Remember, an NDB doesn’t have radials, but only tracks. So, you have to draw the track inbound 080. (If ATC asked you to fly outbound, you would draw 260.)

Determine if the intercept is either to the right or left.

In this case, we have to fly to the right to intercept the track. So, add 45 degrees to 080.

Answer: 125 degrees magnetic

We need to determine what the Fixed card ADF pointer would read when intercepting the inbound track of 080.

Calculate the Relative Bearing:

MH + RB = BTS

RB = new BTS - new MH

RB = 080 - 125

RB = 315

NDB Time and Distance to the Station Formula(s):

Calculate Time to Station
Time to station (mins) = Time to change bearings (secs) / # of bearings

3 mins x 60 seconds = 180 seconds
Time to station (mins) = 180 secs/20 = 9 minutes

Calculate Distance to Station
Distance to station (NM) = [Time to station x TAS/60]
Distance to station (NM) = [9 minutes x 120/60]
Distance to station (NM) = 18 NM

Calculate the Bearing From the Station

MH + RB = BTS

180 + 220 = 400 degrees

400 - 360 = 040 BTS

BFS = BTS +/- 180

040 + 180 = 220 BFS (The aircraft is to the SW of the station)

On a compass rose draw an NDB with 220 BFS. Then draw the 240 track from the station. You will see that we have to turn right.

We need to determine what the Fixed card ADF pointer would read when intercepting the inbound track of 060 (240 outbound).

Calculate the Relative Bearing:
MH + RB = BTS
RB = new BTS - new MH
RB = 060 - 285
RB = 135 degrees

Reference: CAP GEN: IFR TAKEOFFS page 16

At sites without an active ATC Tower

(outside ATC operating hours, MF, Unicom, CARS, or advisory sites, etc...)

For departures, the aerodrome operating visibility is the lowest of the following visibilities:

• Ground visibility (METAR)
• Any reported RVR
• Pilot visibility

Basically, for departures without ATC. All of those 3 (METAR/RVR/Pilot vis) is to be factored. If any one is below limits, you can't go.

Reference: AIM RAC 7.5